Following the chain to elusive anglers

Obtaining reliable estimates of important parameters from recreational fisheries is problematic but critical for stock assessment and effective resource management. Sampling methodologies based on traditional design‐based sampling theory, is inadequate in obtaining representative catch and effort data, social or demographical characterization, or fisher behaviour from small hard‐to‐reach components within recreational fisheries (e.g. specialized sport fisheries) that may account for the majority of the catch for some species. A model‐based approach to sampling is necessary. Researchers in other disciplines including epidemiology and social sciences routinely survey rare or ‘hidden’ populations within the general community by penetration of social networks rather than by interception of individuals. We encourage fisheries researchers to rethink survey designs and consider the social elements of recreational fishing. Employing chain‐referral methods, such as respondent‐driven sampling (RDS), may be a statistically robust and cost‐effective option for sampling elusive sub‐elements within recreational fisheries. Chain‐referral sampling methodology is outlined and an example of a complemented ‘RDS‐recapture’ survey design is introduced as a cost‐effective application to estimating total catch in recreational fisheries.     

Dynamic evolution analysis of recreational fisheries development in China

Understanding the dynamic spatial distribution characteristics and evolving trends in recreational fisheries development is of great importance for formulating policy for responsibly managing recreational fisheries. However, regional economic differences among China's recreational fisheries have yet to be examined and quantified. In this study, a methodological approach applies a series of techniques, including Kernel density estimates, Gini coefficients and Theil indexes, to provide a comprehensive analysis of the dynamic distribution and evolution of recreational fisheries in China. Results showed that recreational fisheries in China have been developing rapidly since the early 21st Century. The total economic value of recreational fisheries in China increased from 5.4 billion Yuan in 2003 to 90.2 billion Yuan in 2018. However, there is a serious imbalance of development of recreational fisheries between regions. Specifically, the combined economic value of recreational fisheries in the main provinces of Shandong, Hubei and Guangdong accounted for 53.4% of recreational value for the whole country, whereas the combined contribution for the bottom 20 of the 31 provinces in the country together accounted for only 10.1%. Analysis of temporal variation at four points in time by kernel density estimation revealed that the development of recreational fisheries exhibited a polarised tendency both among the provinces within the eastern, central and western regions and among the 31 provinces of China. Based on the results of the Theil index decomposition, the overall differences in China's recreational fisheries economy mostly came from differences within each region, which accounted for over 90% of the overall difference. This study provided a means to understand and visualise how key dimensions of recreational fisheries development vary within each region and within the 31 provinces of China, and provides a basis for making short-term and long-term policies aimed at promoting coordinated and sustainable development of recreational fisheries in China.     

What constitutes effective governance of recreational fisheries?—A global review

The effectiveness of recreational fisheries governance has been mixed, with some countries boasting good governance practices that sustain productive recreational fisheries, while others lack any policies and governance structures specific to recreational fisheries. Here, we identify what constitutes effective governance of recreational fisheries by carrying out: (a) a desktop review of 227 country‐specific fisheries legislation, policies and strategies; and (b) a follow‐up questionnaire‐based survey covering 57 contacts in 29 selected countries. Our results show that while recreational fishing is referred to in the main legislation of 67% of the countries reviewed, only 86 of these 152 countries provide a definition for either “recreational” or “sport” fishing and not always in the main legislation. Recreational fisheries are not considered to be effectively managed in many countries, with less than a quarter of respondents claiming that management in their country is effective. Furthermore, the management efficacy, including compliance with regulations, was considered greater for the industrial and small‐scale fishing sectors than for recreational fisheries in most countries. From our findings, it appears that effective recreational fisheries governance requires explicit acknowledgement of recreational fisheries with a clear legal definition in Policy, a well‐developed Policy statement, extensive co‐management processes, clearly defined biological, economic and social monitoring structures and efficient and transparent cost recovery mechanisms. To ensure adaptation to rapidly changing conditions, policy should recognize all fishery sectors and proactively incorporate adaptive planning and contingency plans to effectively secure the diverse values of resources for all users.     

The economic value of recreational fisheries in Nordic countries

Recreational fishing, whether free or at cost, has an economic value. This value was measured in five Nordic countries based on a contingent valuation mail survey. Regression models were used to identify demographic characteristics, types of fishing patterns and differences in the countries’ management regimes that can explain both actual fishing expenditure and willingness to pay for the non‐market benefits by persons participating in fishing or enjoying the benefits derived by it. Net benefit, i.e. willingness to pay over and above actual expenditure was highest amongst those fishing. In Denmark, the small number of generalist fishermen get the highest benefit. In Finland results are mixed but sports fishermen benefit on average even more than generalists. Urban sports fishing raises the highest benefit in Iceland while in Norway the benefit is more equally spread, with occasional anglers and women reaping the least. In Sweden the mean benefit is the lowest in the Nordic countries but evenly distributed among categories of fishermen. In the Nordic countries combined, nationality explains willingness to pay as being Norwegian or Finnish increases benefit and being Icelandic reduces it. The non‐use value of recreational fisheries was elicited through posing questions on willingness to pay for the preservation of the existence of current fish stocks and current quality of recreational fishing to persons participating in fishing or enjoying the benefits derived from it. For those not fishing or people in general, the power of the models to explain willingness to pay for the existence of recreational fisheries was very weak. The benefit, i.e. willingness to pay, is higher if somebody in the household fishes. Educated, young, urban, well‐off citizens also put value on the non‐use of the resource.     

The worth of giants: The consumptive and non‐consumptive use value of the giant sea bass (Stereolepis gigas)

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Evaluation of population decline and fishing sustainability of the endangered Australian freshwater fish Macquaria australasica

Abstract Macquarie perch, Macquaria australasica Cuvier, is an endangered Australian freshwater fish that has historically supported popular recreational fisheries, but since the 1980s, it has experienced a decline in both distribution and abundance. This study investigated whether a marked decline in the population size of Macquarie perch has occurred at Lake Dartmouth between the mid‐1980s and 2000 and the likelihood of the current legal minimum length (LML) of 350 mm TL protecting the population from recruitment overfishing. Recreational angler survey data showed strong evidence for a temporal population decline. Sampling of the population and construction of a simulation model indicated that the current LML would protect the population from recruitment overfishing. This study highlights the value of specifically investigating suspected threats to endangered fish populations to allow the instigation of effective fisheries management.     

Importance of recreational fisheries in the Guadiana River Basin in Portugal

The rapid expansion of recreational fishing in Portugal over the last 20 years, along with the multiplicity of pressures affecting inland fisheries, demands the urgent recognition of the social and economic values. Sport-angling information is still inadequate to formulate management actions. To address this issue, a regional survey on freshwater recreational fishing in all the municipalities of the Guadiana River Basin was carried out in 1999. The survey, based on 1998 data, provided information on the profile of anglers, preferences as regards reservoirs and sections of rivers fished, frequency of fishing trips, motivation, expenditure, fish species caught, an estimation of total catch and its destination, interest in competitions, enforcement and personal opinions. The results recommended improved communication and feedback between users, and mechanisms for future regional development and management of recreational fisheries.     

Towards resilient recreational fisheries on a global scale through improved understanding of fish and fisher behaviour

Despite recreational fisheries serving as a prime example of a coupled social–ecological system, much of the research on such fisheries has been monothematic in orientation and focused either on fisheries ecology or human dimensions. An attempt was made to break down some of the barriers to more interdisciplinary research on recreational fisheries at the 6^th World Recreational Fishing Conference. The overall conclusion was that future research and management efforts should increasingly focus on the feedbacks between the interacting human and ecological components of recreational fisheries. Doing so promises to improve understanding of how recreational fisheries respond to social–ecological change. In this context, the behaviour of both fishes and humans provides an important, yet often overlooked, integrator of the ecological and social components of recreational fisheries. A better understanding of the behavioural dynamics of recreational fishers as well as exploited fishes will help predict how recreational fisheries change, evolve, adapt and reorganise through time to maintain resilience and achieve sustainability on a global scale.     

Current status and future needs of economics research of inland fisheries

Inland capture fisheries (ICFs) provide ecosystem services – fish for food, livelihoods and recreation – to people and therefore have an economic value. Economic valuation can inform the sustainable management of ICFs and ensure they are recognised in trade‐off analysis and decision‐making. This study assesses existing ICFs economic research to identify knowledge gaps. Bibliographic databases were searched for suitable peer‐reviewed articles. The selected studies (n = 75) were analysed for coverage, valuation methodologies and value metrics. A majority of existing studies value recreational ICFs in developed countries. Studies have employed a wide range of valuation methodologies and therefore provide a variety of economic values measured at different units and scales. This study highlights the need for a greater quantity of ICFs economic research that covers a representative sample of ecosystems and fishery types globally. Best practice recommendations are made for a standardised framework to ensure ICFs research generates economically credible and comparable values.     

Modelling angler behaviour as a part of the management system: synthesizing a multi‐disciplinary literature

It is often said that managing fisheries is managing people. This truism implies that fisheries science inherently involves disciplines that focus on fish and their population dynamics, humans and their behaviour, and policy and decision making. This is particularly true for recreational fisheries, where the human behavioural motivation and human response to management actions may be more difficult to predict than in commercial fisheries. We provide a synthesis of the multi‐disciplinary literature on modelling recreational angler behaviour to inform management of recreational fisheries. We begin by defining the recreational fisheries system in an interdisciplinary manner. We then assess the literature for empirical evidence of disciplinary crossover. Using bibliometric data, we provide evidence that there is little disciplinary crossover, particularly between fisheries biology, including applied ecology, and quantitative social science, including economics. We identify critical barriers to disciplinary crossover, such as database indexing issues and nomenclature. Next, we provide a review of critical contributions to the literature, and locate these contributions within our interdisciplinary conceptualization of the recreational fisheries system. This synthesis is intended to be a cross‐disciplinary bridge to facilitate access to the broader literature on modelling angler behaviour, with the ultimate goal of improving recreational fisheries management.     

Geostatistics in fisheries survey design and stock assessment: models, variances and applications

Over the past 10 years, fisheries scientists gradually adopted geostatistical tools when analysing fish stock survey data for estimating population abundance. First, the relation between model‐based variance estimates and covariance structure enabled estimation of survey precision for non‐random survey designs. The possibility of using spatial covariance for optimising sampling strategy has been a second motive for using geostatistics. Kriging also offers the advantage of weighting data values, which is useful when sample points are clustered. This paper discusses, with fisheries applications, the different geostatistical models that characterise spatial variation, and their variance formulae for many different survey designs. Some anticipated developments of geostatistics related to multivariate structures, temporal variability and adaptive sampling are discussed.     

Characterizing state-managed and unmanaged fisheries in coastal marine states and territories of the United States

The status of federally managed fisheries in the United States is well monitored, but the condition of other marine fisheries, whether state-managed, territory-managed or unmanaged, is less understood and often unknown. We used expert surveys to characterize the management systems of non-federally managed fisheries in US coastal marine states and overseas territories. For 311 fisheries, we estimated an overall Fisheries Management Index (FMI) and a qualitative stock status score. These measures were positively correlated, and while a wide range of research, management, enforcement and socioeconomic criteria were partially met (FMI ≥ 0.5) for 66% of fisheries, stock status was considered as partially acceptable (score ≥ 0.5) for only 45% of fisheries and acceptable (score = 1) for only 16% of fisheries. Higher FMI was typically observed in fisheries with greater commercial landed weight, value, or greater recreational catches. Fisheries from continental states had higher FMI than those from overseas territories. Invertebrates and diadromous fish species had higher FMI on average compared to those of marine fishes. Extrapolating results for surveyed fisheries to nearly 2000 non-federally managed US fisheries while stratifying by state and importance designation (based on commercial, recreational, cultural or ecological importance), we estimate a mean overall FMI of 0.48, and estimate that only 19% of fisheries have a reliable estimate of stock status available; both measures are lower than similar estimates for federally managed fisheries. Funding or capacity constraints and information or data limitations were identified as common challenges faced by state agencies in managing fisheries under their jurisdiction.     

Quantifying subjective human dimensions of recreational fishing: does good health come to those who bait?

Recreational fishing is a popular sport and leisure activity in many countries worldwide. There has been growing interest by recreational fishing groups and researchers in the perceived physical and psychological health and social (or ‘biopsychosocial’) benefits of recreational fishing. However, quantifying the key subjective ‘human dimensions’ of fishing that satisfy both the needs of recreational fishing groups and fishery managers is a major obstacle. We propose the use of psychometrically valid health‐related quality of life (HRQOL) measures widely used in the medical and health sciences – namely the Short‐Form Health Survey (SF‐36) – as rapid, reliable and cost‐effective instruments for quantifying HRQOL of recreational fishers. The widespread use of SF‐36 and availability of population normative data allows comparisons of the HRQOL of recreational fishers across multiple temporal and spatial scales, with participants of other activities, and the general population. The use of such measures in periodic surveys allows the biopsychosocial status of a recreational fishery's participants to be assessed using a modified Kobe plot, a graphical format that is easily interpretable and consistent with existing reporting formats used in fisheries stock assessment. Future biopsychosocial research in recreational fisheries can further benefit from interdisciplinary collaboration to develop a suite of standardized psychometrically valid and reliable instruments for assessing specific issues that commonly affect recreational fisheries from regional to international scales, such as drivers of fisher motivation, behaviour and satisfaction.     

Considering recreational catch and harvest in fisheries management at the bio‐regional scale

Abstract The Gulf of Carpentaria in northern Australia supports several commercial fisheries and a largely tourist‐based recreational fishery. The results of a survey of 427 recreational fishing parties visiting the main town, Karumba, between March and September 2006 were examined using the bootstrap method to estimate confidence intervals for mean tourist catch and harvest of grunter, Pomadasys kaakan (Cuvier), and other recreational target species. Tourist anglers harvested between 99.8 and 117 t of P. kaakan and 32.6–38.2 t of blue salmon, Eleutheronema tetradactylum (Shaw), during the survey period. Resident recreational anglers harvested an additional 15–35 t of P. kaakan, but very little E. tetradactylum. In comparison, commercial harvest was 19 t of P. kaakan and 64 t of E. tetradactylum in the whole of the Queensland section of the Gulf of Carpentaria. The results underscore the need for appropriately collected recreational fishing data to support integrated fisheries management at the bioregional scale, and in the case of angling‐based tourist destinations, underpin a diversification of the tourist product.     

Angler behaviour and implications for management ‐ catch‐and‐release among marine angling tourists in Norway

The role of recreational fisheries in the competition for marine resources is increasingly recognised. Their contribution in stock dynamics needs to be accounted for in assessments and management. Management regulations should be based on scientific advice on human and biological dimensions to be effective in reaching their goals. A survey among marine angling tourists staying in fishing camps in two study areas in Norway was conducted to study catch‐and‐release (C&R) behaviour. Although C&R has been assumed to be low in many marine recreational fisheries, this survey showed that for some species, more than 60% of the catch was released. As C&R may be associated with post‐release mortalities, the current management system could be inefficient towards its aim of reducing fishing mortality. It was concluded that it is necessary to quantify release mortalities, to consider C&R behaviour in future management decisions, and to minimise the potential negative impacts of C&R through handling guidelines.     

Global conservation status and research needs for tarpons (Megalopidae), ladyfishes (Elopidae) and bonefishes (Albulidae)

We assessed the taxonomic diversity, geographic distributions, life history, ecology and fisheries of tarpons, ladyfishes and bonefishes (members of the subdivision Elopomorpha), which share many life history and habitat use characteristics that make them vulnerable to environmental and anthropogenic stresses in coastal environments. This assessment of Red List status for the International Union for the Conservation of Nature reveals three species considered near threatened or vulnerable, three species of least concern, and 11 data‐deficient species. Although the taxonomy of tarpons appears stable, it is less so for ladyfishes and bonefishes. In aggregate, these species are distributed circumtropically and foray into temperate zones. Although they spawn in marine habitats, larvae of many species disperse into estuarine habitats, which are declining in area or degrading in quality. Several species support high‐value recreational fisheries, or culturally important small‐scale commercial and artisanal fisheries. Nonetheless, no formal stock assessment exists for any species, so improved data collection, information sharing and assessment techniques should facilitate socio‐economic development of individual fisheries. Catch‐and‐release recreational fisheries that promote conservation of tarpon and bonefishes in some regions are promising models to improve the conservation status of these fishes elsewhere, as well as the economic development of these fishing communities. Most tarpons, ladyfishes and bonefishes likely face significant challenges from anthropogenically mediated habitat loss and alteration, and several are vulnerable to both habitat degradation and overfishing. Broader protection and enhancements to fisheries habitat in all regions will benefit these as well as many other coastal fishery species.     

Providing context to the global code of practice for recreational fisheries

Abstract An in‐depth explanation of selected content of the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission’s ‘Code of Practice for Recreational Fisheries’ (CoP) is presented. The focus is on core areas that were intensely debated in the drafting the CoP. These include definition of recreational fishing, recreational fishing practices, fish welfare, recreational fisheries management and research. It is anticipated that the CoP for recreational fisheries promotes best practice and management principles for sustainable recreational fisheries, within the recreational fisheries sector and ancillary industries/sectors regionally, nationally, and ultimately globally. To be viable, the CoP for recreational fisheries must be adopted by the international community complementing the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.     

Catching sharks: recreational saltwater angler behaviours and attitudes regarding shark encounters and conservation

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Illustrating the critical role of human dimensions research for understanding and managing recreational fisheries within a social‐ecological system framework

Effective management of recreational fishing requires understanding fishers and their actions. These actions constitute critical links between social and ecological systems that result in outcomes that feedback and influence recreational fishers' actions and the management of these actions. Although much research exists on recreational fishers and their actions, this research is often disconnected from management issues. One way to help to overcome this disconnect is to illustrate how past research on the social component of recreational fishing fits within an emerging coupled social‐ecological system (SES) framework. Herein, a conceptual SES is first developed with specific attention to recreational fisheries. This SES is then used to illustrate the importance of considering human dimensions research for articulating, studying and ultimately managing key outcomes of recreational fisheries (e.g. fish population conservation, fisher well‐being) using the example of harvest regulations and a brief review of past interdisciplinary research on recreational fishing. The article ends by identifying key research needs including understanding: how factors such as management rules affect the diversity of actions by recreational fishers; how governance and management approaches adapt to changing social and resource conditions; and how recreational fishers learn and share information.     

Recreational charter fishery attributes and variation in key species catches and discards: Resource management considerations

Strategic long‐term sampling programmes that deliver recreational catch, effort and species demographic data are required for the effective assessment and management of recreational fisheries and harvested organisms. This study used a spatially and temporally stratified observer programme to examine variation in the rates, quantities and lengths of retained and discarded catches of key species in a recreational charter fishery. Geographic region, but not season, significantly influenced catch rates of key demersal species, being driven by temporally persistent latitudinal clines in environmental conditions influencing species distributions. There was considerable trip‐to‐trip variation in catch rates that were attributed to localised differences in fishing operations, locations, environmental conditions and client preferences. Broad trends in retained and discarded catch rates were nevertheless, similar across different fishing effort standardisations (per‐trip, per‐hour, per‐client, per‐client/fished hour), demonstrating that the coarsest unit of effort could be used in fishery assessments. Discard rates of organisms were variable and driven by a combination of mandated legal lengths, individual client and operator preferences for particular species and sizes of organisms, and not due to attainment of catch quotas or high‐grading. This study has identified important fishery attributes that require consideration in assessing charter fisheries and stocks of recreational fish species.