Effects of light on flavonoid and chlorogenic acid levels in the skin of ‘Jonagold’ apples

The objective of our work was to determine how fruit position on the tree affects flavonoid and chlorogenic acid contents. Light was measured at different positions within the canopy of 10-year-old ‘Jonagold’ apple trees on M.9 rootstock raised as slender spindles. Fruit from the top of the canopy contained the highest percentage of blush and the highest levels of cyanidin 3-galactoside (anthocyanin) and quercetin 3-glycosides, followed by fruit from the outside of the canopy, and then those from the canopy interior. There were no significant differences in the levels of catechins, phloridzin and chlorogenic acid among fruit from the different canopy positions. Light level was directly correlated with the levels of cyanidin 3-galactoside and quercetin 3-glycosides and with the percentage of blush in the fruit skin. Light in the interior of the canopy was poorer in UV-A, blue, green and red but richer in far-red light than at all other positions. Consequently, the FR/R ratio was much larger at the interior of the canopy than at all other positions. Both anthocyanin and quercetin 3-glycoside concentrations were clearly related to light level, and there was a critical FR/R ratio of about 1 below which no anthocyanin and only minimal quercetin 3-glycosides were formed.     

The effect of reflective foil and hail nets on the lighting,color and anthocyanins of ‘Fuji’ apple

We studied the influence of covering the orchard floor with reflective foil on photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) both under and outside hail nets, and the possibility that the reflective foil under the hail net compensates for light reduction in last month before harvest time. On the lower side of fruit in the canopy, the reflective foil increased PAR. The chromaticity value a^* showed a difference in the intensity of red coloration in the reflective foil and hail net treatments. Amounts of individual cyanidins were detected by using HPLC–MS. The accumulation of five individual anthocyanins (cyanidin-galactoside, three cyanidin-pentoses and cyanidin) was investigated during last month before harvest time. Concentrations of the main, cyanidin-galactoside in ‘Fuji’ apple increased before harvest time, and at harvest time the reflective foil caused an increase in all identified anthocyanins.     

Delayed harvest improves red blush development and quality of ‘Cripps Pink’ apple

The poor red blush development on ‘Cripps Pink’ (Malus x domestica Borkh.) apple fruit at commercial maturity (CM) reduces the economic return to apple growers in warmer regions of the world. The effects of delayed harvest maturity up to 6 weeks following CM on the development of red blush and fruit quality of ‘Cripps Pink’ apple were investigated at two locations in Western Australia during 2003 and 2004. The red blush, export-grade fruit, total anthocyanin, cyanidin 3-galactoside, chlorogenic acid, catechin, and epicatechin of apple fruit skin tissues increased with advancement of harvest maturity at both locations in both years, whereas hue angle, concentration of phloridzin, fruit firmness, and titratable acidity (TA) of apple fruit tissues decreased with delayed harvest. The internal ethylene concentration was elevated with the delayed harvest. The concentrations of quercetin 3-galactoside, quercetin 3-arabinoside, quercetin 3-rutinoside, quercetin 3-rhamnoside, and quercetin 3-glucoside increased up to 2 weeks following CM, and then declined in 2003 at both locations and at Perth Hills in 2004. Delayed harvest resulted in improved development of red blush on the fruit surface, accumulation of total anthocyanin, cyanidin 3-galactoside, chlorogenic acid, catechin, epicatechin, and quercetin glycosides in fruit skin, SSC:TA ratio and reduced fruit firmness possibly due to the increased ethylene production.     

Studies on the Maturity of Apples.: Respiration Progress Curves for Cox’s Orange Pippin Apples for a Number of Consecutive Seasons

Summary

The effect of UV-B irradiation at 10°C and 20°C on the quercetin glycosides procyanidins, chlorogenic acid and anthocyanin levels in the skin of detached fruit of five apple cultivars was investigated. UV-B responsiveness was compared between sides of the fruit that were outwardly facing (exposed) and inwardly facing (shaded) when on the tree. There were no common effects of UV-B irradiation and temperature across all cultivars. UV-B irradiation increased the quercetin glycoside levels in the shaded side of ‘Gala’, ‘Royal Gala’ and ‘Braeburn’ fruit and only at 20°C. UV-B irradiation of the exposed sides of the five cultivars, of either side at 10°C, and of ‘Pacific Rose’ and ‘Aurora’ at either 10°C or 20°C had no significant effect on quercetin glycoside levels. There was no effect of UV-B irradiation on procyanidin levels at any combination of treatments. However, levels of chlorogenic acid, although one tenth of those of quercetin glycosides and procyanidins, increased markedly with UV-B irradiation. Both exposed and shaded sides of fruit of all cultivars increased in chlorogenic acid levels at 10°C and 20°C after UV-B irradiation. UV-B irradiation increased anthocyanin levels in exposed and shaded sides of fruit of all cultivars at 20°C, and on ‘Braeburn’, and ‘Aurora’ at both 20°C and 10°C. UV-B irradiation at either temperature had no significant effect on either the relative proportions of the glycosides of quercetin (galactoside, rhamnoglucoside, glucoside, xyloside, arabinoside and rhamnoside) or the relative proportions of the procyanidins (Procyanidins B2, B5, epicatechin and catechin). The effect of UV-B irradiation was variable, depending on cultivar, previous light exposure, temperature and class of flavonoids examined.     

金冠苹果树冠内光质构成及其与果实品质的相关性

应用CI-700AB/HR2000光纤光谱仪,研究了田间自然光照条件下金冠苹果树冠内的光质分布及其与果实品质的相关性。结果表明,UV-A、可见光、总辐射、紫光和蓝光,在树冠内分布从上到下、由外到内依次减弱,并与果肉总糖、抗坏血酸、果皮花青苷和类胡萝卜素的分布呈极显著正相关,与果肉可滴定酸和果皮叶绿素呈极显著负相关;UV-B与此相近,但与抗坏血酸呈不显著负相关;红外线则与可见光相反。     

蜡梅的花色和色素组成及其在开花过程中的变化

以蜡梅的4个变种为材料,对其在开花过程中的花色、花色素组成及含量的变化进行研究。花色测定采用英国皇家园艺学会比色卡（RHSCC）和分光色差计,色素的定性及定量分析采用高效液相色谱 —二极管阵列检测技术（HPLC-PAD）和高效液相色谱—电喷雾离子化—质谱联用技术（HPLC-ESI-MS）。结果表明,在开花过程中,各蜡梅变种的花色呈明显变化。黄色外瓣和红色内瓣彩度C* 值均变小,黄色外瓣色相角h增大,由黄色向浅黄方向变化,而红色内瓣色相角h变小,由红色向深红方向变化。在蜡梅红色内瓣中检测到2种花青苷和3种黄酮醇,在黄色外瓣中检测到与红色内瓣相同的3种黄酮醇。其中花青苷为：矢车菊素 3-O-葡萄糖苷和矢车菊素 3-O-芸香糖苷;黄酮醇为：槲皮素 3-O-芸香糖苷、山奈酚 3-O-芸香糖苷和槲皮素苷元。首次检测出蜡梅花瓣中含有矢车菊素 3-O-芸香糖苷。蜡梅各变种间及每个变种的各开花阶段,色素种类没有差异,但色素含量发生了明显变化。从蕾期到初花期,黄色外瓣和红色内瓣的总黄酮醇（TF）含量迅速减少,花朵开放后变化平稳。红色内瓣的总花青苷（TA）含量在开花过程中较稳定。     

Farb- und Fruchtqualitätsverbesserung bei Äpfeln mit Monophosphat und Extenday

Monophosphates reportedly enhance red colouration of bi-coloured apple fruit by stimulating anthocyanin synthesis and, in addition with calcium or potassium, may improve fruit firmness; colour and firmness which may be restricted by the climate in Western Europe. 12-year-old cv. ‘Elstar’ apple trees at Klein-Altendorf near Bonn, Germany, were sprayed weekly with either of two monophosphates four weeks prior to harvest to improve fruit quality, i.e. colouration, sugar and firmness. White, woven reflective cloth was spread as an alternative on the grass strips between the tree rows six weeks prior to harvest for the same purpose. Untreated apple trees served as control. Neither of the three treatments affected fruit maturation, measured as Streif index. The monophosphate formulation containing calcium (Seniphos; 24% P₂O₅; 4% CaO; 2?×?10?L/ha) increased the sugar content of the cv. ‘Elstar’ apples in the outer as well as in the inner tree canopy and the reflective cloth additionally in fruit of the lower canopy close to the cloth's position on the ground. This white reflective cloth (Extenday) also affected fruit from the outer tree canopy with the largest sugar content (12.6°Brix) and firmness (7.6?kg/cm²) at harvest. The monophosphate formulation containing potassium (Rizammina 42; 8% P₂O₅, 21% K₂O; 3?×? 2.5?kg/ha) improved the category of greater 25% fruit colouration by only 3%. Both Seniphos and the reflective cloth increased this portion by 17–19%, thereby raising the portion of class-1-fruit by 8%, equivalent to additional earnings of 1,060 €/ha. The green ground colour of apples in the shaded inner canopy was retained by either monophosphate. In the well-illuminated tree periphery, however, the ground colour of fruit treated with either monophosphate was less green (more yellow-green) and the top colour was more red. The white reflective cloth induced the same positive effects on fruit colouration to a much larger extent. Both monophosphates increased fruit firmness after 4?months cold storage around 5% at a time when fruit were too soft for marketing as fresh products.     

草莓果实发育过程中花色苷和黄酮醇类物质的形成

以‘赛娃’草莓为试材,研究了果实中花色苷和类黄酮类物质的形成机制。在‘赛娃’果实中共检测到12种花色苷和7种黄酮醇类物质。幼果期(盛花后15～25 d)果实内没有花色苷的积累,但黄酮醇类物质大量积累;随着果实成熟,花色苷含量逐渐增加,黄酮醇类物质含量降低;遮光导致花色苷和黄酮醇类物质的积累降低了70％～90％,尤其是花青素糖苷和槲皮素糖苷的含量降低了90％以上,表明遮光抑制草莓花色苷和黄酮醇类物质的积累,且对花青素、槲皮素合成的抑制明显高于花葵素和山奈酚。草莓果实类黄酮类物质代谢在发育前期主要向双氢槲皮素方向合成,果实成熟期主要向花葵素方向合成。     

富士苹果果皮花青素发育的相关因素分析

富士苹果果皮色泽取决于花青素含量。果皮的花青素含量与果实纵、横径呈极显著的指数函数曲线(y=ae~(bx))相关;与果肉的还原糖、可溶性糖、果肉的花青素含量、光照强度均呈极显著的线性相关,与果皮的叶绿素含量呈显著的负相关。富士苹果是强光着色品种。江苏境内的富士苹果应在改善树冠通风透光的基础上,于10月底至11月初采收,才能充分着色。充分着色的果实,含糖量高,品质优,外观美,商品性高。     

乔砧富士苹果树冠枝梢数量和分布对产量与品质的影响

以20年生改良高干开心形乔砧富士苹果树为试材,应用树冠分格方法,研究了透光和郁闭树冠内长、中、短枝(梢)的数量、比例与产量和品质的空间分布差异和枝(梢)数量、类型与比例对果实产量品质的影响。结果表明,透光和郁闭树冠枝(梢)总量分别为104×104和124×104条·hm-2,在树冠内膛、中部和外围的比例分别为41.87%、42.83%、15.30%和10.00%、36.92%、53.08%;透光树冠的折合产量为63.30t·hm-2,显著高于郁闭树冠的47.96t·hm-2,并集中分布在树冠1.0～2.5m的层次高度,透光树冠每层的果实产量均大于郁闭树冠;透光树冠的单果质量、可溶性固形物、固酸比分别比郁闭型树冠高11.84%、18.01%和68.22%。典型相关与多元回归分析获得了影响果实品质因素的主要枝(梢)类型和重要程度,长枝(梢)数量与果实单果质量、硬度呈显著正相关,短枝(梢)数量与果实可溶性固形物含量呈正相关,与可滴定酸含量呈显著负相关;线性规划得到了乔砧富士苹果优质的总枝(梢)量为96.57×104～103.68×104条·hm-2,长、中、短枝(梢)比例分别为9.41%～10.62%、14.12%～15.00%、74.57%～76.47%。     

Effects of position on canopy and harvest time on fruit physico-chemical and antioxidant properties in different apple cultivars

Fruit from Granny Smith, Fyriki, Fuji Kiku 8, and Imperial Double Red Delicious apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) trees planted in single or double rows, were harvested from different positions in the canopy, during the last month before commercial harvest. Fruit physico-chemical and antioxidant capacity, using the radical DPPH, were measured, in skin and flesh tissue. Greater total phenol content and total antioxidant capacity per fresh weight and serving portion of skin and flesh tissue, were found in Imperial Double Red Delicious and Fyriki apples, compared to Granny Smith and Fuji Kiku 8. The variation among cultivars in antioxidant contents was greater in peeled, compared with unpeeled fruit, highlighting the importance of eating unpeeled fruit. During the last two weeks before commercial harvest the total phenol content and total antioxidant capacity per fresh weight increased in skin of Granny Smith (by 24% and 42%, respectively) and Fuji Kiku 8 (by 19% and 27%, respectively). Fruit from the more sun—exposed parts of canopy had usually better red coloration and the effect was more pronounced in Fuji Kiku 8 and Fyriki, followed by Imperial Double Red Delicious and a lower effect was found in Granny Smith. Greater total soluble solid content, but not flesh firmness, were also found in fruit from the more sun—exposed parts of canopy, in all cultivars. The skin of fruit from the upper positions in the canopy had greater total phenol content and total antioxidant capacity, in all cultivars, apart from Fyriki. Antioxidant contents in flesh tissue were also greater in the upper positions of canopy in Fuji Kiku 8 and Imperial Double Red Delicious, and to our knowledge this is the first report on plant canopy effects on apple flesh antioxidant compounds.     

Comparison of anthocyanins in non-blotches and blotches of the petals of Xibei tree peony

A comparison in non-blotches and blotches of 35 cultivars of Xibei tree peony was investigated to explore flower coloration of Xibei tree peony (the second cultivar group in Chinese tree peony). With high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis, six anthocyanins including peonidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside (Pn3G5G), peonidin 3-O-glucoside (Pn3G), cyanidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside (Cy3G5G), cyanidin 3-O-glucoside (Cy3G), pelargonidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside (Pg3G5G), and pelargonidin 3-O-glucoside (Pg3G) were detected in non-blotches and blotches of petals. Total anthocyanins (TA), total flavones and flavonols (TF), and the copigmentation index (CI) were also analyzed. Cyanidin-based glycosides, which accumulated abundantly at the basal petal, resulted in blotch formation. Some peculiar cultivars with only one kind of anthocyanins or without anthocyanins in non-blotches were found in this study. For example, ‘Feng Zi Xiu Se’, ‘Ou Duan Si Lian’, and ‘Xi Wang’ contained only Pn3G5G; ‘Bing Shan Cang Yu’ and ‘Jin Bo Dang Yang’ contained only Cy3G; while no anthocyanins were found in ‘Bing Shan Xue Lian’. Several cultivars were rich in Pg-based glycosides, such as ‘Ni Hong Huan Cai’, and ‘Ju Yuan Shao Nv’. These cultivars would be excellent parents for creating new cultivars with novel flower color in the future.     

‘紫红1 号’红肉苹果果肉抗氧化性及花色苷分析

 ‘紫红1号’是新疆红肉野苹果[Malus sieversii f. neidzwetzkyana（Dieck）Langenf.]与‘富士’苹果杂交的F₁代中的一株果肉全红的株系。以其为试材,测定其果肉的花色苷、多酚、类黄酮含量及其抗氧化能力,结果表明其果肉花色苷含量为228.3 mg · kg^-1 FW,总酚含量为2 523 mg · kg^-1 FW,类黄酮含量为2 514 mg · kg^-1 FW,其抗氧化能力（ferric reducing antioxidant power,FRAP）为13.39 μmol · g^-1。利用液质联用（UPLC-PAD-/MS/MS）鉴定了红肉苹果果肉花色苷的主要组分有9种,其中4种分别为矢车菊3–O–葡萄糖苷、矢车菊3–O–半乳糖苷、矢车菊3–O–木糖苷、矢车菊3–O–阿拉伯糖苷,其中矢车菊3–O–半乳糖苷占73.37%,另外5种暂不能确定其结构。本研究表明花色苷的稳定性,发现该色素在pH 1 ~ 3,40 ℃以下比较稳定,高温加速花色苷的降解。花色苷对光照敏感,暴露在室内自然光下15 d其残留率为41.53%。     

套袋对苹果果皮花青苷合成及着色的影响

套袋是提高苹果果实着色的主要技术措施之一,也是研究苹果果皮花青苷合成和基因表达的重要手段。苹果果皮花青苷的合成经由苯丙烷类代谢途径,编码苹果花青苷合成酶类的基因已得到克隆。套袋后果皮花青苷合成酶类的基因表达受到抑制,因而抑制了花青苷合成;摘袋后果皮花青苷迅速合成,与套袋后果皮光受体浓度增加和叶绿素含量降低从而提高对光的敏感度、迅速启动花青苷合成酶类的基因协同表达有关。果皮色素特别是花青苷和叶绿素的含量、比例和分布决定果实的着色状况,套袋促进果皮花青苷合成的同时大大降低了叶绿素含量,从而使果实着色鲜艳。     

L-谷氨酸促进富士苹果花青素积累的效应

为了探索更为经济适用的果实增色技术,以13年生富士苹果为材料,在果实着色初期(9月中旬)用200～800mg/L谷氨酸(Glu)溶液处理,然后分批取样,分析结果表明,不同浓度谷氨酸处理均能明显促进果皮花青素积累,增加果实着色面积,并明显增加果实可溶性糖含量。分析果实中内源5-氨基乙酰丙酸(ALA)含量,发现Glu能够促进内源ALA含量提高,推测Glu促进苹果着色可能与其促进ALA生物合成有关。分析果实着色过程中超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化物酶(POD)和抗坏血酸过氧化物酶(APX)等抗氧化酶活性,没有观察到这些抗氧化酶活性与果实着色之间存在着明显的相关关系。     

MdMYB10对苹果果皮苯丙氨酸代谢的影响

MdMYB10对苹果果皮花青苷合成起重要作用,但对苯丙氨酸代谢途径中其他酚类物质合成是否起作用尚不清楚。从‘粉红女士’苹果（Malus ? domestica‘Pink Lady’）果皮中克隆了MdMYB10,分别构建其过表达载体pCAMBIA2301-MdMYB10和沉默载体pTRV2-MdMYB10,在套袋苹果果皮下注射农杆菌诱导MdMYB10过表达和沉默,分析MdMYB10对解袋后苹果果皮苯丙氨酸代谢的影响。结果表明,在过表达MdMYB10的果皮组织中,MdMYB10表达量上调了19.62倍,MdPAL、MdCHS、MdF3H、MdDFR、MdANS、MdUFGT、MdFLS、MdANR均有不同程度的上调,只有MdLAR无显著变化;沉默MdMYB10的果皮组织中,MdMYB10表达量降低了87%;MdCHS、MdF3H、MdDFR、MdANS和MdUFGT均有不同程度的下调,其中MdANS和MdUFGT下调最多,分别下调83%和82%。在过表达MdMYB10的果皮中,花青苷含量升高了3.05倍,槲皮素–3–O–半乳糖苷、表儿茶素、原花青素B2、绿原酸、对香豆酸含量均有不同程度升高,根皮苷含量无明显变化;在沉默MdMYB10的果皮中,花青苷含量降低了83%,槲皮素–3–O–半乳糖苷和表儿茶素含量分别降低58%和52%,原花青素B2、根皮苷含量无明显变化,而绿原酸含量升高了24%,对香豆酸含量升高了21%。可见,MdMYB10不仅调控苹果果皮中花青苷合成,同时还调控苯丙氨酸代谢中绿原酸、对香豆酸、槲皮素–3–O–半乳糖苷、表儿茶素和原花青素B2等物质的合成,但对根皮苷的形成作用不明显。     

矮化中间砧苹果施氮位置对细根分布、氮素吸收和产量品质的影响

为明确矮化中间砧苹果树合理的施肥位置,减少氮肥的浪费.试验于2018年和2019年,以'烟富3'苹果/SH6/八棱海棠为试材,借助15N同位素示踪技术,研究了萌芽前在树冠投影范围距树干由近及远的3个水平距离——内环、中环和外环施氮对新梢旺长期细根和土壤15N分布、树体15N吸收以及果实产量和品质的影响.结果 表明:各处...     

不同时期摘袋对'富士'苹果着色的影响

通过测定不同时期摘袋'富士'苹果果实着色生理指标的变化规律,探讨对其着色的影响.结果表明:盛花后130 d(熊岳9月20日左右)开始到月底(9月30日)摘袋,果实着色快,且随着摘袋时间的推迟,着色有加快趋势.摘内袋后10～15 d,果皮花青苷含量迅速上升且着色快,但果实含糖量尚未达到理想值,辽宁熊岳地区10月20～25日左右采收,可溶性固形物可达16%～17%,此时采收果实品质风味较佳.     

Postharvest changes in pigment concentrations in ‘Fuji’ apples with ‘Fuji’ stain

’Fuji’ apples (Malus domestica Borkh cv. ‘Fuji’) sometimes develop a discolouration in the peel during cold storage, typically in the periphery of sunburned peel. We refer to this particular postharvest disorder as ‘Fuji’ stain as we have not observed it in any cultivar other than ‘Fuji’ and the discolouration looks like a stain on the peel. Because peel discolouration occurs, peel pigments are thought to be involved. Hence the concentrations of anthocyanins, epicatechin, quercetin glycosides, chlorogenic acid, chlorophylls, and carotenoids in peel disks taken from areas exhibiting ‘Fuji’ stain were compared to concentrations observed in peel disks not exhibiting ‘Fuji’ stain. In 2005, peel from sunburned apples exhibiting ‘Fuji’ stain was compared to peel from three areas of sunburned apples not exhibiting stain [i.e. sunburned peel, the area around the sunburned peel (halo), and the area around the halo (OH)]. Additionally, stained peel was compared to the sun-exposed side of non-stained non-sunburned apples (NSNB). The second year, 2006, we compared stained peel to NSNB peel and the area outside the stained area (OS) on those fruit with stain. The concentrations of idaein, epicatechin, and quercetin glycosides were consistently low in the stained peel both years. This is in contrast to our earlier studies in which sunburned ‘Fuji’ apples had high concentrations of quercetin glycosides and epicatechin and low concentrations of idaein, and non-sunburned apples had low concentrations of quercetin glycosides and epicatechin and high concentrations of idaein. The consistent and unique characteristic of stained peel reported here indicates an association of these compounds with the incidence of stain. In 2005, chlorogenic acid concentrations in the stain peel were lower than other peel types, but in 2006 they were higher. Differences in chlorophyll and carotenoid concentrations were observed among many of the peel types. However, there is not a clear association between stain development and changes in chlorophyll and carotenoid concentrations due to significant differences not being observed in both years. While our research provides insight into pigment changes associated with ‘Fuji’ stain formation, more work is needed to help clarify the inconsistencies observed between the 2 years.     

Seasonal changes in cellular compartmentation and membrane permeability to sugars in relation to early or high temperature-induced watercore in ‘Orin’ apples

Summary

The intensity of watercore in ‘Orin’ apples (Malus domestica Borkh.) from the outer canopy increased from early-July to mid-August, followed by a decrease through late-October, while no watercore was detected in inner canopy fruit during the same period. Seasonal changes in sorbitol content in each cellular compartment paralleled the development of watercore. Significantly higher sorbitol, fructose and glucose contents in the vacuoles of cells in outer canopy fruit than in inner canopy fruit suggest that active metabolism and uptake of sorbitol might occur in watercored apples in mid-August. The permeability of sorbitol across the tonoplast was significantly higher in outer than in inner canopy fruit after mid-August, whereas no difference was observed between bearing position for the other sugars or for the plasma membrane. These data suggest that elevated sorbitol levels in the intercellular spaces might result from active apoplastic unloading and not from an inhibition of metabolism and/or an increase in leakage from cells.