Hydraulic and mechanical properties of young Norway spruce clones related to growth and wood structure

Stem segments of eight five-year-old Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) clones differing in growth characteristics were tested for maximum specific hydraulic conductivity (k(s100)), vulnerability to cavitation and behavior under mechanical stress. The vulnerability of the clones to cavitation was assessed by measuring the applied air pressure required to cause 12 and 50% loss of conductivity (Psi(12), Psi(50)) and the percent loss of conductivity at 4 MPa applied air pressure (PLC(4MPa)). The bending strength and stiffness and the axial compression strength and stiffness of the same stem segments were measured to characterize wood mechanical properties. Growth ring width, wood density, latewood percentage, lumen diameter, cell wall thickness, tracheid length and pit dimensions of earlywood cells, spiral grain and microfibril angles were examined to identify structure-function relationships. High k(s100) was strongly and positively related to spiral grain angle, which corresponded positively to tracheid length and pit dimensions. Spiral grain may reduce flow resistance of the bordered pits of the first earlywood tracheids, which are characterized by rounded tips and an equal distribution of pits along the entire length. Wood density was unrelated to hydraulic vulnerability parameters. Traits associated with higher hydraulic vulnerability were long tracheids, high latewood percentage and thick earlywood cell walls. The positive relationship between earlywood cell wall thickness and vulnerability to cavitation suggest that air seeding through the margo of bordered pits may occur in earlywood. There was a positive phenotypic and genotypic relationship between k(s100) and PLC(4MPa), and both parameters were positively related to tree growth rate. Variability in mechanical properties depended mostly on wood density, but also on the amount of compression wood. Accordingly, hydraulic conductivity and mechanical strength or stiffness showed no tradeoff.     

32个杉木无性系木材密度和力学性质的变异*

３２个杉木无性系间，木材密度和抗弯弹性模量、抗弯强度、顺纹抗压强度均有较大差异，无性系内株间亦存在一定差异。木材密度与抗弯弹性模量、抗弯强度、顺纹抗压强度间的相关极显著，相关系数分别为０．３９５７、０．８３６８和０．９０２０；木材密度与生长速度呈负的遗传相关。     

Relationships between growth stress and wood properties in poplar I-69 (Populus deltoides Bartr. cv. “Lux” ex I-69/55)

Six inclined poplar I-69 (Populus deltoids cv. I-69/55) trees were collected for studying the influence of growth stress level on wood properties. Growth stress indicator (GSI) was measured at eight positions around the periphery of each trunk at breast height and corresponding wood samples were obtained. Wood anatomical, physico-mechanical and chemical characteristics were measured, including cell diameter, fibre length, double wall thickness excluding the gelatinous layer, lumen diameter after gelatinous layer removal, proportion of wood tissues, basic density, FSP, MOE, compressive strength, shrinkage and chemical composition. Each property was regarded and discussed in relation to the growth stress level.     

杨树新无性系木材性质的变异研究

The wood basic density, cellulose content and fiber form were investigated for all sample trees at breast height (1.3m) in seven poplar clones, and at 0 (butt), 5.6, 9.6, 13.6, 17.6, 19.6 and 21.6 m for clone Nanlin-95 and Nanlin-895, respectively,for providing information on variation patterns of wood density, fiber characteristics and holocellulose content within trees and among clones. The results showed that significant variations about wood density, cellulose content, fiber diameter and the ratio of fiber length to diameter existed among poplar clones examined. Variance analysis indicated that there were significant differences in wood basic density, fiber length, fiber diameter and cellulose content among the growth rings, which had an increasing tendency along the direction from pith to bark. The significant differences also existed in wood basic density, fiber length and fiber diameter at different tree height. The mean wood basic density had a general increase trend with increasing height of trees and the lowest was found at the base, while fiber length and fiber diameter had a general decline pattern with increasing height of trees and the biggest value was observed at the height of 5.6 m. Regression analysis indicated that the relationship between examined wood properties and growth ring number (cambial age), and the relationship between examined wood properties and tree height can be described by polynomial functions.     

培育措施对人工林樟子松木材力学性质的影响

研究了不同培育措施(初植密度、间伐强度、坡向、坡位)对人工林樟子松(Pinus sylvestris var.mongolica)木材的密度和力学性质(横纹抗弯强度、抗弯弹性模量、顺纹抗压强度、冲击韧性、端面硬度)的影响。初植密度(1.5m×1.0m,1.5m×2.0m和1.5m×2.5m)对木材密度和抗弯弹性模量有显著的影响。初植密度为1.5m×1.0m时,木材主要力学指标值最大。适当间伐可提高木材的抗弯弹性模量和顺纹抗压强度,但重度间伐则会降低木材的力学强度。坡向(阳坡和阴坡)对木材的抗弯弹性模量影响显著,阳坡高于阴坡。坡位(上坡位和下坡位)对除端面硬度外的木材力学性质指标影响都显著,各项力学指标值均是坡下高于坡上。表5参9。     

Genetic variation in wood stiffness and strength properties of hybrid larch (Larix gmelinii var. japonica × L. kaempferi)

Genetic parameters for wood stiffness and strength properties were estimated in a 29-year-old hybrid larch stand (Larix gmelinii var. japonica × Larix kaempferi). The study included 19 full-sib larch families from Hokkaido, northern Japan. Implications of these genetic parameters in wood quality improvement are subsequently discussed. Traits included in the analyses were the dynamic modulus of elasticity of green logs (E _log), the modulus of elasticity (MOE), the modulus of rupture (MOR), compression strength parallel to the grain (CS) in small clear specimens, wood density (DEN), and diameter at breast height (DBH). DEN had the lowest coefficients of variation and MOE the highest. The narrow-sense heritability estimates of E _log, MOE, MOR, and CS were 0.61, 0.44, 0.60, and 0.43, respectively, and those of DEN and all mechanical properties increased from an inner to outer position within the stem. E _log and DEN had high positive phenotypic (0.52–0.83) and genetic (0.70–0.92) correlations with MOE, MOR, and CS. The mechanical properties of the inner position of the stem had rather high phenotypic and genetic correlations with those of the outer position and overall mean. The predicted gains in wood stiffness (E _log and MOE) were higher than those of the strength properties (MOR and CS). The predicted correlated responses in MOE, MOR, and CS when selecting for E _log and DEN were 72.6%–97.8% of a gain achievable from direct selection of these traits. DBH showed an insignificant correlation with all mechanical properties, although selection of this trait had a slightly negative effect on the mechanical properties.     

Mechanical perturbation affects conductivity, mechanical properties and aboveground biomass of hybrid poplars

Xylem development in trees is affected by dynamic mechanical stresses imposed on stems by wind. To assess clonal differences in response to mechanical perturbation (MP), we subjected seven greenhouse-grown F1 hybrids of Populus trichocarpa Torr. and A. Gray. x P. deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh. to a standard MP treatment consisting of 20 manually imposed stem flexures per day for 70-90 days. Effects of MP on aboveground biomass, hydraulic conductivity (k(h)), specific conductivity (k(s)), flexural stiffness (EI), modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) were determined. Treatment increased stem radial growth and decreased height growth, leaf area and total aboveground biomass. It also significantly decreased k(s), MOE and MOR, but significantly increased EI and wood specific gravity in most clones. Mechanical perturbation caused greater stem rigidity, without having a significant effect on whole-stem k(h) or percent loss of conductivity due to embolism. Maximum k(h) was positively correlated with EI in both control (r(2) = 0.54, P < 0.0001) and MP-treated (r(2) = 0.61, P < 0.0001) plants, and k(s) and MOE were positively correlated with percent vessel lumen area (r(2) = 0.45, P < 0.0001 and r(2) = 0.28, P = 0.002, respectively). Thus, contrary to our expectation of a trade-off between conductivity and wood strength, there may be an opportunity to select clones for woody biomass production that are superior in both mechanical strength and hydraulic conductivity, as is the triploid Clone 19-61.     

人工林杉木和杨树木材物理力学性质的株内变异研究

按照中国国家标准研究杉木和I-214杨树木材的抗弯弹性模量、抗弯强度、顺纹抗压强度和密度,同时按照日本国家标准研究2个树种的顺纹抗剪强度.结果表明:杉木的抗弯强度、顺纹抗压强度和密度由胸高直径处向上呈波浪形增加,抗弯弹性模量则稳定降低,但不同高度间杉木的物理力学性质没有显著差异;近树皮处木材的物理力学性质高于近髓心处木材,并有极显著差异.对于I-214杨树,只有抗弯弹性模量从髓心到树皮逐渐增加,其他的物理力学性质,最小值在从髓心到树皮的过渡区,最大值在近树皮处,从髓心到树皮,杨树的物理力学性质有极显著的差异.杉木和杨树的径面顺纹抗剪强度从髓心到树皮有极显著差异,并且近树皮的高于近髓心的木材,而弦面顺纹抗剪强度从髓心到树皮没有显著差异.木材密度与力学性质有很好的线性相关关系,木材密度是一个很好的力学强度的预测手段.     

Early prediction of basic density, shrinking, presence of growth stress, and dynamic elastic modulus based on the morphological tree parameters of Tectona grandis

Significant efforts have been made to improve teak; however, evaluation in juvenile step is limited. The objective of this study was to conduct an early assessment of the wood properties of 4-year-old Tectona grandis. Samples of 36 clones were collected to determine their morphological tree parameters [diameter a breast height (DBH), diameter of the second log, tree height, and log quality]. Presence of growth stress, heartwood percentage, shrinkage (radial, tangential, and volumetric), basic density, and ultrasound velocity (USV) were determined for standing trees, logs, green lumber, and dry lumber. The results indicate that DBH and USV in standing trees can be used to predict elastic module (ED), mainly ED of the standing tree and dry lumber, as well as the possible presence of growth stress. Additionally, growth stress can be predicted by UVS in standing tree. Tangential and volumetric shrinkage were not predicted by tree morphology, but radial shrinkage was predicted by diameter and UVS was not affected by any shrinkage. Basic density was predicted by DBH and UVS measured in log.     

杉木材性株内变异的研究Ⅰ.木材力学性质和木材密度

对１５株浙江产杉木株内不同高度和圆周不同方位上木材的抗弯强度、抗弯弹性模量、顺纹抗压强度和木材密度的差异，木材密度的径向变异模式和木材力学性质与木材密度的相关关系进行了测定和分析。主要结果是：抗弯强度和抗弯弹性模量在株内不同高度上差异特别显著；顺纹抗压强度和木材密度未表现出显著差异；在圆周不同方位上，三项力学性质和木材密度均为南北向高于东西向，差异不显著；木材密度径向变异模式在不同高度和不同方位上均为接近水平有一定波动的直线；三项力学性质与木材密度的相关关系在不同高度和不同方位上均特别显著，但不同力学性质与木材密度的相关系数有明显差异，不同高度上和圆周不同方位上，亦有差异。     

施肥对尾巨桉生长及大径材材性的影响分析

对3种追肥处理1(N300P200K200)、处理2(N200P100K150)和处理3(N100P50K50),从12、27、42、50、62、75、88、99、110、144到192月生的尾巨桉生长量数据进行了统计分析,并在198月生时对每种施肥处理取7株样木进行了木材的基本密度、抗弯强度、弹性模量、硬度、干缩率以及皱缩率等指标开展研究,结果如下:追肥量与生长量成正相关关系.追肥量越多,生长量越大,这种差距从追肥后就开始产生,一直到192月生时都存在;但是,这种差距在大部分时间里都未达到显著水平:达到显著差距的只有施肥处理1和处理3之间,27月生时DBH达到0.01的显著性差异、平均高在12、27和37月生时达到0.05的显著性差异、蓄积量在27、37、42和50月生时达到0.05的显著性差异.材性指标上,大径材木材材性与追肥量的关系密切,增大施肥会影响木材材性,包括降低抗弯强度,增加弹性模量,降低端、径面和弦面硬度,降低基本密度,增加木材含水率等;达到显著差异的有:木材的抗弯强度、径面硬度被显著降低,达到了0.05的显著水平.木材边材基本密度降低更大,达到了0.01的极显著水平.经过多重比较的分析,都是常规施肥处理3与处理2和常规施肥处理3与处理1两两之间差异显著.处理1和2比处理3的抗弯强度平均分别降低了12％和14％、径面硬度分别降低了11.7％和14.1％,而边材基本密度分别降低了8.6％和8.1％;因此,在培育桉树大径材时,一定要考虑合理施肥量.     

Efficiency of early selection for rotation-aged wood quality traits in radiata pine

A total of 360 bark-to-bark-through-pith wood strips were sampled at breast height from 180 trees in 30 open-pollinated families from two rotation-aged genetic trials to study inheritance, age-age genetic correlation, and early selection efficiency for wood quality traits in radiata pine. Wood strips were evaluated by SilviScan® and annual pattern and genetic parameters for growth, wood density, microfibril angle (MFA), and stiffness (modulus of elasticity: MOE) for early to rotation ages were estimated. Annual ring growth was the largest between ages 2–5 years from pith, and decreased linearly to ages 9–10. Annual growth was similar and consistent at later ages. Wood density was the lowest near the pith, increased steadily to age 11–15 years, then was relatively stable after these ages. MFA was highest (35°) near the pith and reduced to about 10° at age 10–15 years. MFA was almost unchanged at later ages. MOE increased from about 2.5 GPa near the pith to about 20 GPa at ages 11–15 years. MOE was relatively unchanged at later ages. Wood density and MOE were inversely related to MFA. Heritability increased from zero near the pith and stabilised at ages 4 or 5 for all four growth and wood quality traits (DBH, density, MFA and MOE). Across age classes, heritability was the highest for area-weighted density and MFA, lowest for DBH, and intermediate for MOE. Age-age genetic correlations were high for the four traits studied. The genetic correlation reached 0.8 after age 7 for most traits. Early selection for density, MFA and MOE were very effective. Selection at age 7–8 has similar effectiveness as selection conducted at rotation age for MFA and MOE and at least 80% effective for wood density.     

Influence of initial planting spacing and genotype on microfibril angle,wood density,fibre properties and modulus of elasticity in Pinus radiata D. Don corewood

Pinus radiata D. Don trees from six clones, grown at initial spacings of 2500 stems ha⁻¹ and 833 stems ha⁻¹ were destructively harvested. For these trees wood properties were measured on radial slices sampled at a height of 1.4 m above the ground. Relative to wide spacing, close initial stand spacing significantly reduced microfibril angle (MFA) and ring width and significantly increased dynamic modulus of elasticity (MOE), fibre length, latewood percentage and cell wall thickness. Density and fibre width were not significantly different between spacing treatments. Examination of the influence of genetic population on wood properties indicated that genotype significantly influenced MFA, MOE and ring width. The key wood properties MFA, MOE and fibre length were regressed against tree diameter, height and stem slenderness. All three wood properties were most strongly correlated with stem slenderness. Multiple regression models developed for MFA, MOE and ring width accounted for respectively 62%, 81% and 58% of the variation in these variables. The following changes occurred in sampled properties with increasing ring number: MFA and ring width declined markedly; MOE and fibre length increased markedly; latewood percentage and cell wall thickness increased slightly; and density and fibre width did not show any radial trend.     

马尾松无性系种子园半同胞子代变异分析和家系选择

以福建省漳平五一林场马尾松无性系种子园自由授粉子代半同胞家系为研究对象,分析其树高、胸径、材积、冠幅、通直度、高径比、冠径比、木材基本密度、管胞长度和宽度、管胞长宽比等性状,发现家系间除管胞长宽比性状差异显著,其余性状均达差异极显著,暗示着马尾松种子园半同胞家系间存在较为丰富的变异,具选育潜力。8年生林分内各性状的家系遗传力以树高性状为最高(0·691),其次是木材基本密度(0·640)。各性状间的相关性分析结果表明,生长量性状的改良可间接改善通直度,且生长量性状与木材基本密度存在显著正相关关系,木材基本密度与管胞长度和宽度不相关。采用10%入选率,发现5年生林分和8年生林分入选家系一致,材积遗传增益分别达19·74%和19·23%,且5年生林分和8年生林分生长量性状的遗传相关极显著,认为马尾松制浆造纸材短轮伐期的初选年龄可确定为5年生;根据性状遗传力的相对大小和典型相关分析的结果,认为马尾松家系选择可适当注重树高生长量指标。以树高和材积为选择指标,按照10%入选率,兼顾材性和种子园内无性系的开花结实情况,筛选出制浆造纸材短轮伐期优良家系12个。     

不同湿地松种源木材材性遗传变异的研究

本文对浙江省长乐林场的湿地松 (Pinuselliottii) 18个种源的木材性质进行测定与分析。结果表明 ,种源间木材气干密度、抗弯强度、抗弯弹性模量和顺纹抗压强度差异极显著 ;管胞长度与宽度、冲击韧性差异显著 ,而管胞壁厚及胞壁率差异不显著 ;种源内木材气干密度、力学强度及胞壁率差异不显著 ,管胞长、宽和壁厚的差异均显著且高于种源间的差异。实验结果表明在种源水平上 ,进行木材气干密度、力学强度和管胞形态的种源选择 ,可取得良好的效果 ;种源内个体管胞形态 (管胞长、宽和壁厚 )变异大于种源间的差异 ,表明湿地松种源材质改良如在种源选择基础上进行个体改良会取得更好的增益。 18个种源木材管胞长度及宽度、管胞壁厚、胞壁率的广义遗传力分别为 :0 36 15、0 5 993、0 74 73、0 16 98;木材气干密度、抗弯强度、抗弯弹性模量、顺纹抗压强度与冲击韧性的广义遗传力分别为 :0 4 14 2、0 2 6 4 6、0 10 82、0 2 977和 0 12 4 6 ;种源树高及胸径的广义遗传力为 :0 4 0 5 7和 0 4 74 7;说明湿地松种源木材管胞性状、木材气干密度及树木生长性状 (胞壁率除外 )受中度或弱度遗传控制 ,通过一定强度的选择 ,能获得较高的遗传增益。本研究还从树木生长性状与管胞形态、力学强度方面对 18个种源进     

湿地松半双列子代遗传分析

根据 10年生湿地松 6× 6半双列子代在两个试验地点的生长量、木材基本密度、树干通直度和抗风性数据 ,研究了该树种目的性状的遗传变异规律。结果表明 ,地点间存在着显著的生长差异和通直度差异 ,但两点的木材基本密度非常一致 ;所有研究性状均存在着一定程度的地点与基因型互作 ,其中胸径、基本密度均达到了显著以上水平 ;在一般配合力 (GCA)均方差显著地大于特殊配合力 (SCA)均方差的前提下 ,胸径、材积、基本密度、通直度、抗风性的加性方差占总遗传方差的 96 .4 1%～ 10 0 %。但是 ,树高性状以非加性方差居优。决定子代表现的遗传因素 ,主要是亲本的GCA,SCA和反交效应也有影响 ,但程度较低 ;两块测定林中 ,树高、胸径、材积、基本密度、通直度、抗风性的单株狭义遗传力分别为 0 .0 0 1和 0 .0 74、0 .0 80和 0 .144、0 .0 6 8和 0 .137、0 .10 8和 0 .6 0 9、0 .0 5 2和 0 .2 5 2、0 .0 5 8(单地点 )。     

The effects of thinning treatments on density, MOE, MOR and maximum crushing strength of Pinus brutia Ten. wood

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of plantation thinning on various wood properties of Pinus brutia Ten. Tree samples were obtained from heavily and moderately thinned and unthinned 33–35 year-old plantations. Wood properties were examined in various wood zones including 16 annual rings after the first treatment. The results of this study showed that there was a significant relationship between thinning intensity and radial increment (1.30 m) for an individual tree. Thinning treatments increased annual ring width especially a few years after thinning. Heavy thinning treatments were especially effective in impacting mean ring width values at breast height. However, the percentage of late wood did not differ much between the samples. Based on the results of correlation analysis between ring width and late wood percentage there was no significant correlation identified. Mean wood density was not affected by the treatments. Also, no significant correlation was found between thinning and examined strength properties (MOR, MOE and compression strength parallel to grain). However, a relationship was found between wood density and all strength properties except for MOE. The current results suggest that thinning can produce improvements in ring width without any negative impacts on investigated wood properties. It is recommended that subsequent studies should be designed to understand genetic effects and maximize treatment effects.     

An investigation of the influence of selected factors on the properties of spruce wood

Thirty Norway spruce trees (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) from the forest district of the ETH Zurich were tested for bending MOR, static MOE of bending and dynamic MOE (calculated from eigenfrequency and sound velocity). The specimens were clear and were sampled from the whole of the stem. Their correlations to density, annual ring width, height in the tree, distribution over the stem diameter and the percentage of compression wood were statistically analysed. All three elasticity modules and the maximal stress can be very well predicted from a linear function of the sample density with a common gradient across the compression wood values but with different intercepts that decrease with increasing compression wood content. The other variables have highly significant impacts on the response variables too, however, this is largely irrelevant for the goodness of fit. Further, a clear increase of density, of MOE and of bending MOR was measured from pith to bark and similarly with decreasing annual ring width. Concerning the height of the stem, no distinct trend for the mechanical properties could be found.     

Prediction of wood stiffness, strength, and shrinkage in juvenile wood of radiata pine

Development of optimal ways to predict juvenile wood stiffness, strength, and stability using wood properties that can be measured with relative ease and low cost is a priority for tree breeding and silviculture. Wood static modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR), radial, tangential, and longitudinal shrinkage (RS, TS, LS), wood density (DEN), sound wave velocity (SWV), spiral grain (SLG), and microfibril angle (MFA) were measured on juvenile wood samples from lower stem sections in two radiata pine test plantations. Variation between inner (rings 1–2 from pith) and outer (rings 3–6 from pith) rings was generally larger than that among trees. MOE and MOR were lower (50%) in inner-rings than in outer-rings. RS and TS were higher (30–50%) for outer-rings than inner-rings, but LS decreased rapidly (>200%) from inner-rings to outer-rings. DEN had a higher correlation with MOR than with MOE, while MFA had a higher correlation with dry wood MOE than with MOR. SLG had higher significant correlation with MOE than with MOR. DEN and MOE had a weak, significant linear relationship with RS and TS, while MOE had a strong negative non-linear relationship with LS. Multiple regressions had a good potential as a method for predicting billet stiffness (R ² > 0.42), but had only a weak potential to predict wood strength and shrinkage (R ² < 0.22). For wood stiffness acoustic velocity measurements seemed to be the most practical, and for wood strength and stability acoustic velocity plus core density seemed to be the most practical measurements for predicting lower stem average in young trees.     

三倍体毛白杨新无性系木材气干密度和力学性质性状的遗传控制及对单板材育种的意义

该文利用 9个 9年生三倍体毛白杨无性系木材试样 ,研究了木材气干密度组成及力学性质的遗传变异规律 .结果表明 ,木材气干密度组成及力学性质在无性系间存在显著或极显著差异 ,并受到中等强度的遗传控制 ;气干密度的径向和纵向变异与多数研究结果一致 ;力学性质除抗弯弹性模量和端面硬度外其株内变异趋势也基本符合木材学理论 .在力学性质指标中 ,抗弯弹性模量和弦面硬度是遗传性很强的性状 ,其无性系重复力分别为 0 90和 0 80 ,抗弯强度、顺纹抗压强度和硬度的无性系重复力稍低 .遗传相关表明对单板材可通过木材密度与干形等形质指标进行优良无性系选择