A Review on Current Status and Future Prospects of Winged Bean (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Psophocarpus tetragonolobus</Emphasis>) in Tropical Agriculture

Winged bean, Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC., is analogous to soybean in yield and nutritional quality, proving a valuable alternative to soybean in tropical regions of the world. The presence of anti-nutritional factors and high costs associated with indeterminate plant habit have been major concerns in this crop. But occurrence of good genetic variability in germplasm collections offers precious resources for winged bean breeding. However, lack of germplasm characterization is hindering such efforts. From a genomic standpoint, winged bean has been little studied despite rapid advancement in legume genomics in the last decade. Exploiting modern genomics/breeding approaches for genetic resource characterization and the breeding of early maturing, high yielding, determinate varieties which are disease resistant and free of anti-nutritional factors along with developing consumer friendly value-added products of local significance are great challenges and opportunities in the future that would boost cultivation of winged bean in the tropics. We review past efforts and future prospects towards winged bean improvement.     

Variability of Nutritional and Cooking Quality in Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L) as a Function of Genotype

Screening of natural biodiversity for the better quality traits are of prime importance for quality breeding programs. The objective of this investigation was to select candidate accession of bean having high concentrations of protein as well as macro and micro minerals with good cooking quality for use as parents in breeding programme for these compounds. Thirty-five accessions of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L) were field grown and their seeds were analyzed for their cooking quality and nutritional composition. Wide variations were observed in most of the measurements e.g. protein (18.7–26.2%), iron (79.4–137.6 ppm) and hardness after cooking (4.65–9.88 Kg) suggesting that there are considerable levels of genetic diversity. Across all accessions the concentration of potassium was negatively correlated with protein (r = −0.43, P < 0.05). Concentrations of protein was significantly greater in accessions VIII, XIII and XIX compared to other accessions analyzed. Iron concentrations were greatest (137 ppm) in XIX and lowest (79 ppm) in XXVII. Lines with less cooking time were line III, X, XXVI, XXX and XXXI. Bean line XIX contains high protein (24.9%) with high zinc (33.3 ppm) and highest iron (137.6 ppm), but it has high hardness after cooking (7.32 kg). Four clusters were computed by cluster analysis that explained quite a good variation in the traits. The great variability for these attributes suggests that these selected accessions may be useful as parents in hybridization programs to produce bean with value-added traits. This information was also potentially useful for pulse breeders working on the development of new varieties.     

Proximate composition and mineral content of two edible species of Cnidoscolus (tree spinach)

Proximate composition and mineral content of raw and cooked leaves of two edible tree spinach species (Cnidoscolus chayamansa and C. aconitifolius), known locally as chaya, were determined and compared with that of a traditional green vegetable, spinach (Spinicia oleraceae). Results of the study indicated that the edible leafy parts of the two chaya species contained significantly (p<0.05) greater amounts of crude protein, crude fiber, Ca, K, Fe, ascorbic acid and -carotene than the spinach leaf. However, no significant (p>0.05) differences were found in nutritional composition and mineral content between the chaya species, except minor differences in the relative composition of fatty acids, protein and amino acids. Cooking of chaya leaves slightly reduced nutritional composition of both chaya species. Cooking is essential prior to consumption to inactivate the toxic hydrocyanic glycosides present in chaya leaves. Based on the results of this study, the edible chaya leaves may be good dietary sources of minerals (Ca, K and Fe) and vitamins (ascorbic acid and -carotene).     

Influence of growth conditions on the value of crisphead lettuce

The marketable and nutritional quality of crisphead lettuce as affected by nitrogen supply, cultivar, and plant age at harvest was investigated in six plantings during 1989 and 1990. The optimum yield of marketable heads was obtained at a total nitrogen supply of 150 kg N per ha although only small differences were observed to the yield at 100 and 200 kg total N per ha. The total nitrogen supply included the amount of mineral nitrogen within the rhizosphere. The incidence of dry tipburn in older leaves was clearly decreased by an increased nitrogen supply, especially at late planting. The content of nitrate was increased and the content of dry matter and vitamin C decreased with increased nitrogen supply. The vitamin C content was higher for the cultivar Marius than for Saladin. As plants got older, the nutritional quality of crisphead lettuce decreased because the content of nutrients, especially vitamin C, decreased with increased plant age at harvest.     

Nutritive characterization of purslane accessions as influenced by planting date

The uniqueness of purslane (Portulaca spp.) asthe richest vegetable source of omega-3 (-3)fatty acids is well documented. However, purslane hasnot been domesticated or fully evaluated for itsnutritive value. The objective of this study was todetermine the influence of planting date on chemicalcomposition of purslane accessions. Eight accessionsfrom different geographical locations were planted 12days apart, and whole plants harvested at full bloom. Chemical analysis (DM basis) of leaves showedsignificant differences among varieties for all thecharacteristics measured. Accession by planting dateinteraction influenced (p < 0.05) levels of crudeprotein, total lipids, and carbohydrate contents. Wild Greek accession had the highest, while aBeltsville (Maryland) wild type had the lowest crudeprotein content (27.1 vs 20.5%) at the secondplanting date. Crude protein, lipid and ash levelswere most influenced (p < 0.05) by planting date. Total lipids varied from 4.0–5.8% and 3.7–5.1% forthe first and second planting dates, respectively. Selected fatty acid content indicated significantly(p < 0.05) higher levels of 18: 26, and18: 33 in the Dutch Garden accession comparedwith other varieties. The Egyptian wild accession hadthe lowest level of 18: 33. The ratio of 3 to 6 acids, which ranged from 5.5 to22.3 indicated a highnutritive value of purslane compared to other oilcrops such as soybeans and perrilla. The high levelsof protein in purslane compete with those of othercommercially important vegetable crops. The studyshows that, in spite of its genetic diversity, purslaneremains one of the most abundant terrestrial vegetablesources of Omega-3 fatty acids and other essentialnutrients potentially beneficial for humans as well asanimals.     

Comparative studies on the storage proteins and anti-nutritional factors from seeds ofPsophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC from five South-East Asian countries

The seeds of 27 varieties ofP. tetragonolobus from six regions of South-East Asia have been examined by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. No marked variations in the electrophoretic patterns were found which could be exploited by plant breeders to improve nutritional quality with respect to sulfur containing amino acids. The amino acid compositions of varieties from the different regions showed little variation. Seed extracts of all 27 varieties ofP. tetragonolobus showed trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitory activities, and hemagglutinating activities. The levels of trypsin inhibitory activities showed some genotypic differences varying from 22.2 to 42.5 mg trypsin inbibited g^?1 of seed meal. As a group the varieties from Malaysia showed the lowest levels of trypsin inhibitor. The chymotrypsin inhibitory activity also showed a similar variation (30.1–47.6 mg chymotrypsin inhibited g^?1 of seed meal). Seed extracts agglutinated type O⁺ and B⁺ human and rabbit erythrocytes with little difference in activity between varieties. Autoclaving winged bean seed meal prior to protein extraction inactivated the anti-nutritional factors and resulted in considerable reduction of protein solubility.     

Qualitätsprobleme bei der Resistenzzüchtung von Kopf- und Blumenkohl

In judging the value of the varieties and the quality of the edible part one should not forget that the resistance must also be present in other parts of the plant in order to reach the edible portion at all. This is so with diseases of the vascular system in roots, stems and leaves e.g.Fusarium, Plasmodiophora or cabbage fly as the agent of damage. In: Disease resistance in the vegetable crops, III Walker (1964) surveys also the situation in cabbage. Since then our knowledge of the club-root causing fungusPlasmodiophora has risen from 6–7 to at least 16 physiological races.A satisfactory source for club-root resistance in cabbage we only found in plants with pink anthocyanin pigmentation. The inheritance for colour is under complementary genetic control. Sometimes, however, the synthesis of colour is blocked by inhibitors in spite of the presence of a dominant colour gene. We have made use of this breeding pink-free heads.In spite of work on the antocyanin problem in cabbage over the last 20 years, I have been unable to bread white-headed plants which have as good disease resistance as plants with pink colouration in their interiors. In some other plant varieties one can find a similar relationship between disease resistance and anthocyanin colour in particular in the seed. I therefore feel justified to draw attention to the anthocyanin problem. It is also known that the presence of isothiocyanates and similar S-compounds can affect the disease resistance level in the plant. Sulphur containing compounds which co-determined the flavour and odour of the cabbage should be investigated for their influence upon disease resistance before one attempt to change drastically or even reduce them. We also discuss uneveness of the waxy layer in relation to quality and to disease resistance.Attempts were made to crosscauliflower with club-root resistantcabbage in order to obtain better disease resistance in cauliflowerlike plants. Slides are shown which demonstrate the quality problems 12–15 years after crossing, and the difficulties of breeding for cauliflower headlets were often obtained along the stump, but terminal head positions were rare. Quality-wise this cauliflower had more leaves inside the curd than usual. The breeding material segregates also for colour. Better cold — and frost — resistance was observed. If one does not follow up such observations one can lose a lot of disease resistance potential from the breeding material.

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Paper presented at the Congress of the International Association for Quality Research on food Plants (CIQ) held in common with the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Qualitätsforschung (Pflanzliche Nahrungsmittel) (DGQ) in Wädenswil, Switzerland, Oktober 1975.     

Varietal and environmental effect on the glycoalkaloid content of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)

The tubers of 14 potato varieties were analysed for glycoalkaloids. The level of glycoalkaloids in tubers of all the varieties analysed are within the safe limits for human consumption. The peels of tuber contained about 60–70% of the total glycoalkaloids present in the whole tuber. The levels of glycoalkaloids in leaves and tubers were correlated (r=0.865). There was a significant increase in the content of glycoalkaloids in peels of tubers exposed to sunlight. Glycoalkaloid contents increased at the rate of 1.9mg/100g fresh weight per day in peels of Kufri Jyoti tubers exposed to diffused sunlight.     

Growth and Nutrient Accumulation of Winged Bean and Velvet Bean as Cover Crops in a Subtropical Region

We examined biomass dry matter and nutrient uptake of live plant parts, leaf area index, and litter of winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) and velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens) 12, 18, 24 and 30 weeks after sowing (WAS). The two plants had similar leaf and stem+petiole biomasses. At 30 WAS winged bean had a significantly lower pod yield than velvet bean. Between 18 and 30 WAS, winged bean produced less litter than velvet bean due to differences in growth stages. The total mulch of live parts and litter of winged bean and velvet bean completely covered the ground by 18 and 12 WAS, respectively. Compared to velvet bean, the leaf and stem+petiole of winged bean had a significantly higher N concentration; significantly higher N uptake at 24 and 30 WAS; significantly lower C/N ratio; and significantly higher P, K and Mg concentrations. In winged bean, P uptake was significantly higher in the leaf at 30 WAS and in the stem+petiole at all harvesting times. The total biomass of the leaf, stem+petiole and litter of winged bean was 317–561 g DM m-², and their N content was 12.3–17.7 g m-². The total biomass of live parts and litter of winged bean might be sufficient to suppress weeds and increase soil N. Winged bean is an appropriate legume cover crop and green manure due to its longer growing period and superior ground-covering ability and high N input.     

The degradation of lectins,phaseolin and trypsin inhibitors during germination of white kidney beans,Phaseolus vulgaris L.

White kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), cv Processor, contain a relatively high content of phaseolin (storage protein), lectins and a special group of glycoproteins as well as a considerable amount of protein-type trypsin inhibitors. Protein digestion of raw Processor beans in monogastrics, for example pigs, is disturbed by poorly digested, phaseolin lectins, which can bind to carbohydrates in brush border membranes of the small intestinal epithelium, and trypsin inhibitors. The effect of the germination of white kidney beans on lectins, phaseolin and trypsin inhibitors was studied in order to achieve a degradation of lectins, phaseolin and trypsin inhibitors and an increase ofin vitro enzymatic hydrolysis of the protein of bean flour. Therefore, whole bean extracts were examined throughout a germination period of up to seven days for their lectin and phaseolin pattern, lectin content, binding capacities of functional lectins towards brush border membranes and trypsin inhibitor content. In addition thein vitro enzymatic hydrolysis by pepsin and pancreatin of the protein from flours of (un)germinated white kidney beans was studied. SDS-PAGE demonstrated a degradation of E-lectins and a disappearance of L-lectins and phaseolin during germination. Results indicated a decrease of the lectin content by 85%, a loss of binding capacities of functional lectins towards brush border membranes by 91%, and a decrease of trypsin inhibitors by 76%, in bean flour after germination for seven days. A maximum inin vitro enzymatic hydrolysis of protein from bean flour was already established after germination for half a day.     

Potential of winged bean pods and their products in Papua New Guinea

Three winged bean varieties (UPS 31, 121 and 122) were grown in randomised blocks in the UPNG Agriculture Garden under two levels of nitrogren fertilizer and harvested at weekly intervals until maturity. While whole pods reached their maximum length, width and limit of suitability as a green vegetable by 21 days after anthesis, the crude fat, protein and fibre contents continued to increase further on a fresh weight basis with the ratio of pod case to seed fat and protein decreasing on a dry weight basis. The reverse was true when fibre was considered. There was a very small effect from increased N fertilizer level on fat, protein and fibre contents. There was little difference in nutrient content between varieties except that UPS 31 contained more fibre. UPS 122 showed the greatest pod length, number of seeds per pod and seed weight, followed by UPS 121, then UPS 31; the same order was apparent when ripe seed fat and protein yields were considered. The potential of winged bean as a vegetable, grain legume and oilseed crop is discussed in terms of projected commercial outlay and nutritional advantages.     

Reversed phase HPLC analysis of α- and β-carotene from selected raw and cooked vegetables

Traditional AOAC colorimetric procedures for carotenoid analysis are known to lack specificity and accuracy. Newer HPLC methods provide the investigator with a more precise tool for carotenoid quantification in foods and tissues. In the present studies, reverse phase HPLC was utilized to evaluate the - and -carotene content in raw and cooked leaves of lettuce, spinach and winged bean as well as in the carrot root. The vegetables were boiled or steamed and the true retention of - and -carotene in the cooked products was determined. Boiling for 30 minutes resulted in a 53 and 40% loss of -carotene from lettuce and carrots, respectively. Full retention or even an increase in -carotene content in boiled winged bean leaves and spinach was noted. Steaming resulted in very good retention of - and - carotene in all vegetables (83–139% retention). Thus, although cooking procedures (especially boiling) may result in oxidative loss of carotenoids in some vegetables, heat treatment increases the chemical extractability of - and -carotene in others. The presence of carotenoproteins in some vegetables may effect the heat stability of extractability of - and - carotene.     

Comparative nutritive value of winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L) DC) and other legumes grown in Tanzania

Chemical analyses and feeding experiments using rats were conducted to evaluate the nutritive value of winged bean and other legumes (soyabean, green gram, bambarra nuts, pigeon peas, field beans, cow peas) sources grown in Tanzania. Proximate analyses showed that the composition of winged bean was similar to soyabean, while the composition of the other legumes differed considerably. This was also the case for antinutritional constituents and minerals. As to the amino acid composition, the lysine level was high with the highest value in winged bean (7.5 g/16 g N). However, the concentration of methionine and cystine was low which limits their protein quality. Another important amino acid, threonine, was generally high, especially in winged bean (4.3 g/16 g N). With exception of field bean, true protein digestibility was above 80%, soyabean having the highest value (90.7%). The biological value was also highest in soyabean (76.1%) followed by winged bean (69.9%). Utilizable protein was high in soyabean (28.8%) and somewhat lower in winged bean (23.4%). Energy digestibility was around 80%, soyabean having the highest value of 85.8%. The study findings support the idea that winged bean is a good alternative plant protein source in Tanzania.     

Food potentials of some unconventional oilseeds grown in Nigeria — A brief review

A brief review of literature on kernels ofCitrullus andCucumeropsis (egusi melon) species,Telfairia occidentalis (fluted pumpkin),Lagenaria (gourd) species all of Cucurbitaceae family and other oilseeds such asPentaclethra macrophylla (African oil bean),Parkia spp. (African locust bean) both of Mimosaceae family andButyrospermum paradoxum (shea butter) of Sapotaceae family which are grown and widely used as food in Nigeria is presented. The kernels of species of Cucurbitaceae form the bulk of unconventional oilseeds used for food in Nigeria. The nutritional value of some of the kernels and the physicochemical properties and storage stability of the oils obtained from them are discussed. The various consumable forms in which they exist are also described. The problems and prospects of these neglected oilseeds in Nigeria are highlighted.     

Analysis of nutritional components of eight famine foods of the Republic of Niger

In the western Sahel, indigenous plants become important staples when cereal harvests are inadequate to support populations inhabiting that region of Africa. The purpose of this study was to assess the nutrient content of several of these edible wild plants. The leaves of the following seven plant foods were analyzed: Ziziphus mauritiana, Cerathotheca sesamoides, Moringa oleifera, Leptadenia hastata, Hibiscus sabdarifa, Amaranthus viridi, and Adansonia digitata. The fatty acid, vitamin E, carotenoid, selected mineral and amino acid contents of these plant foods were determined. These same analyses were performed on the fruit of the Adansonia digitata. In quantitative and qualitative terms, Amaranthus viridis was found to be an excellent source of protein. Its amino acid composition compared favorably to that of a World Health Organization (WHO) protein standard. It also contained considerable amounts of the two fatty acids that are essential in humans (linoleic and -linolenic) and a number of minerals including iron, magnesium, calcium and zinc. The leaves of Hibiscus sabdarifa contained an appreciable quantity of protein the composition of which was comparable to the WHO standard. The mineral content of the leaves of this plant was also exceptionally high; noteworthy was its high zinc content. H. sabdarifa also contained significant quantities of the two essential fatty acids. Ziziphus mauritiana was an excellent source of the essential fatty acid linoleic acid and several of the metals including iron, calcium, magnesium and zinc. Its content of other essential nutrients, however, was rather low. In general, Adansonia digitata leaves were nutritionally superior to the fruit of the tree; however, the fruit did contain useful quantities of potassium, phosphorus, zinc and -linolenic acid. The Leptadenia hastata leaves were an especially good source of lutein and -carotene. These data should be useful to the people who inhabit the western Sahel in helping them devise healthy diets during times when cereal staples are in short supply.     

Studies on green beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

The phytoalexins produced after the inoculation of green bean pods (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) with the spore suspension of three fungi viz.Fusarium solani, Penicillium patulum andPhytophthora megasperma were studied. Five phytoalexins were isolated and identified as phaseollin, coumestrol, kievitone, phaseollidin and 6--hydroxyphaseollin. Their identity was proved according to m.p., TLC, UV and MS by comparison with authentics. Moreover, the preliminary screening of their antifungal activity was carried out.     

The reduction of antinutritional behenic acid in winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus L. DC) seeds

Eight winged bean seed varieties were treated by two methods, autoclaving and soaking, to investigate their respective effects on the antinutritional behenic acid in winged bean seeds. Either method was not able to completely destroy behenic acid. Thirty minute autoclaving reduced the behenic acid content up to 5%, and 60 min autoclaving reduced by 15%. Soaking in water in 2 h did not make any change in behenic acid content in any of the varieties, while 20 h soaking reduced it by 1.5%.     

Fluorodensitometric estimation of cucurbitacin-C in leaves ofCucumis sativus L.

A quantitative method for the determination of cucurbitacin-C inCucumis sativus L. is presented. Crude chloroform extracts of the leaves were subjected to thin layer chromatography (TLC). After treatment with antimony trichloride and heating, the fluorescence of the spots was measured with a flying spot densitometer.     

Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis): Nutrition related aspects and needed nutrition research

The nutritional characteristics and food potentials of jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis) have been reviewed. The bean is a good sources of protein, 23% to 34%, and carbohydrate 55%. It is also a good source of Ca, Zn, P, Mg, Cu and Ni. Jack bean protein is adequate in most essential amino acids with the exception of methionine and cystine which may be nutritionally limiting. Antinutritional and toxic factors including trypsin inhibitors, hemagglutinins, cyanogen glucosides, oligosaccharides and others are present in jack bean. Properly processed jack bean could be used to prepare some of the popular dishes made from cowpea, peanut, pigeon pea and soybean. Industrial products such as protein concentrates and isolates, starch, flakes, grits and flours can be produced from the bean. Further research is needed to identify varieties with high protein and nutritional quality. Development of new highly nutritious food products based on whole or processed jack bean should increase production and expand use.     

Quick-cooking beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.): II. Phytates,oligosaccharides, and antienzymes

Effects of the quick-cooking processes on phytate and oligosaccharide levels, and on trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors, were investigated in three bean varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris L.: Great Northern, red kidney, and pinto). Beans soaked in distilled water had lower levels of phytate-P than those soaked in a mixed salt solution. Leaching losses of oligosaccharides were nearly the same in different soaking treatments for all the beans except kidney beans. Residual trypsin inhibitor activities (TIA) in cooked quick-cooking beans were about 10% compared with about 20% for chymotrypsin inhibitor activities (CTIA) in the same bean products. -Irradiation was more effective in reducing TIA than CTIA and paralleled destruction by moist heat.Utah Agricultural Experiment Station Journal article no. 2480.