Pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) silviculture in natural stands of NW Spain: Environmental conditioners

Forest management is often carried out in different ways, without any appropriate environmental restrictions. Stands of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) in Galicia (NW Spain) have been harvested by alternating high forest and, mainly, coppice forest. However, some totally inappropriate silvicultural treatments have been used, such as thinning of the best trees and inadequate pruning. The objective of the present study was to analyse how environmental characteristics affect the management of oak forests in Galicia. For this, a botanical inventory was carried out in 39 selected stands of Q. robur and a total of 42 parameters were measured, 4 of which were physiographical, 12 climatic, 19 edaphic and 7 silvicultural. In order to analyse the possible relationships among these variables, the silvicultural data were compared with the other data, by canonical correlation analysis. All parameters were correlated with the silvicultural regime, although the correlation was weak for the floristic data. It is therefore evident that the environmental conditions affect how forest stands should be managed, although this does not imply that more profitable use of the stands cannot be achieved than at present, and alternative silvicultural methods must be found to enable appropriate management and conservation of oak stands.     

Groundwater and Light Conditions as Factors in the Survival of Pedunculate Oak (Quercus Robur L.) Seedlings

A noticeable decline and physiological weakening of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) has been recorded in the past decade in lowland parts of Slovenia. The triggers were dry climate, unfavourable precipitation patterns and human influence that brought about changes in watercourses and water tables. Regeneration and future management of this tree species is therefore questionable. To define a critical groundwater table which would permit successful regeneration, planted and naturally grown seedlings were compared in two forests differing in the degree of decline and physiological weakness of adult pedunculate oak trees. Comparison of stomatal conductance and pre-dawn water potential (PWP) showed differences of seedlings between and within forest complexes. Stomatal conductance dropped below 100 mmol m⁻² s⁻¹ at PWP values below −1.0 MPa, while closure of stomata was caused by a PWP between −1.6 and −1.9 MPa. Increased water stress equalized photosynthetic yield in both natural and planted oaks below −1.4 MPa.     

Site quality of pedunculate oak (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Quercus robur</Emphasis> L.) stands in Galicia (northwest Spain)

Accurate estimates of forest productivity are required for sustainable forest management. Height of dominant and codominant trees at a reference age is often used as a measure of site productivity. Eight algebraic difference equations based on the models proposed by Sloboda, Bertalanffy-Richards, Korf, Hossfeld, and McDill-Amateis were tested on the transformed, longitudinal data structure that considers all possible growth intervals. Autocorrelation was modelled by expanding the error term as an autoregressive process according to this data structure. Generalized nonlinear least squares methods were used for model fitting. Several numerical and graphic analyses were used to compare the different candidate models. The relative error in dominant height prediction was used to select 60 years as the best reference age. An algebraic difference equation based on the model proposed by Korf provided the best compromise between biological and statistical aspects and produced the most adequate site index curves. This model is therefore recommended for height growth prediction and site classification of pedunculate oak stands in Galicia. The model is polymorphic and base-age invariant, having only one asymptote. Predictions of height for age intervals between t₁ and t₂ of more than 15 years should be considered with caution because of the associated critical error.     

Underplanting Cherrybark Oak (Quercus pagoda Raf.) Seedlings on a Bottomland Site in the Southern United States

We initiated a study on a bottomland site in the southern United States to examine the effects of Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica Thunberg) control and seedlings of two root classes on survival and growth of underplanted cherrybark oak (Quercus pagoda Raf.) seedlings. Three honeysuckle control treatments were assigned to nine 0.5-ha plots in a stand harvested to 30% residual stocking. Treatments included a spring 1997 herbicide application (Escort^®, metsulfuron-methyl), a similar application in the late summer of 1997, and a control (no herbicide application). In 1998, half of each treatment plot was planted with seedlings having four or more first-order lateral roots > 1 mm in diameter, while the other half of each plot received seedlings with fewer than four lateral roots. Four years after treatment, the early season application reduced honeysuckle biomass 60% relative to the other treatments, but we did not observe a survival or growth response by underplanted seedlings. Three years after establishment, seedlings that initially had four or more lateral roots were 16% taller and 18% larger in root-collar diameter than seedlings in the other class, but these differences were primarily due to initial size differences maintained through the study period. Over all treatments, oak seedlings averaged 87% survival while showing a 300% increase in height and a 170% increase in root-collar diameter 3 years after planting. Our results suggest that partial stand harvesting followed by underplanting may be a viable approach for establishing cherrybark oak reproduction on bottomland sites of the southern United States.     

A comparison of the autecology of Quercus robur L. and Q. pyrenaica Wild.: present habitat in Galicia, NW Spain

The biotopes occupied by pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.)and rebollo oak (Quercus pyrenaica Willd.) in Galicia were characterizedusing different parameters, enabling a comparative analysisof its habitats. Thirty-nine plots of pedunculate oak and 40of rebollo oak were inventoried and 25 ecological parameters(physiographic, climatic and edaphic) were measured to describethe biotopes, along with 14 stand parameters to characterizethe structure and the silviculture of these forests; some ofthem were used in previous works about the autecology of bothspecies. Quercus robur was found to occupy a wider range ofecological habitats and their distribution is oceanic; Q. pyrenaicapresents a more Mediterranean phytoclimatic position. The resultsindicated that the distribution of oak forests in Galicia ismore closely related to physiographic and climatic featuresthan to edaphic, because the nature of the substrates that theyoccupy is similar. Analysis of fragility/aggressiveness betweenboth species and chestnut shows that the aggressiveness of bothoaks, mainly pedunculate, was much higher, except at high altitudes,and in areas with a high mean temperature, where rebollo ismore aggressiveness. Comparison of the two Quercus shows formost of the parameters that Q. robur is the more aggressivespecies.     

Response of two oak species to extensive defoliation: Tree growth and vigor, phytochemistry, and herbivore suitability

This study was developed to experimentally determine whether the differential mortality of white oak versus black oak observed following defoliation events in the oak-dominated forests of the central hardwoods region of the eastern USA may be due to differences in carbon allocation between the two species. Black oak and white oak growing in a common garden were artificially defoliated (90%) using scissors in two consecutive years. Concurrent with the second defoliation event, herbivore performance and phytochemical characteristics were measured, followed immediately by measures of tree growth. In the dormant season following the second defoliation event, roots were sampled to assess tree vigor. Species-specific differences in foliar chemistry and herbivory were evident, regardless of defoliation. Defoliation-induced changes in above-ground biomass were evident in white oak, but not black oak. Defoliation-induced changes in foliar chemistry were more evident in black oak; these were reflected in greater differences in herbivore suitability. Herbivore consumption was correlated with depressed foliar C:N ratios and elevated foliar nitrogen. White oak root starch concentrations were markedly lower in defoliated trees, suggesting that white oak vigor is especially sensitive to resource limitations in the form of photosynthate loss. The implications of these results with respect to defoliation events and white oak mortality, as well as potential phylogenetic differences in response to severe defoliation between the red and white oak groups, are discussed.     

模拟气候变暖和林内穿透雨减少对干旱年暖温带锐齿栎林土壤呼吸的影响

[目的]研究土壤呼吸对气候变暖和干旱的响应,阐明全球气候变化与土壤碳排放之间的反馈关系。[方法]采用红外辐射增温和林内穿透雨减少技术模拟气候变暖和干旱,通过LI-8100土壤CO2通量测定系统对生长季土壤呼吸速率进行观测,分析了干旱年不同处理(对照、增温+减雨、增温、减雨)对土壤呼吸速率的影响。[结果]显示:生长季,以上4种处理的土壤呼吸速率分别为1.78、1.84、2.02和2.01μmol·m~(-2)·s~(-1),5 cm土壤温度和土壤湿度分别可以解释土壤呼吸速率变异的68.2%87.5%和51.0%66.6%。干旱期,以上4种处理的土壤呼吸速率均低于生长季,增温处理降低了土壤呼吸速率与土壤温度的相关性,但增加了土壤呼吸速率与土壤湿度的相关性。[结论]干旱年内,土壤温度和湿度是影响该区土壤呼吸速率的主要环境因子,干旱期增温处理引起土壤湿度对土壤呼吸的限制作用削弱了气候变暖与土壤碳排放之间的正反馈作用。     

暖温带森林土壤酶活性对增温的响应及其环境解析

[目的]模拟气候变化背景下土壤酶活性季节变化规律和土壤酶活性对环境因子变异的响应,以深入理解气候变化背景下微生物因素在调控土壤碳循环过程中的作用。[方法]以暖温带锐齿栎林土壤为研究对象,采用红外辐射增温技术和96孔-微平板法测定了生长季和非生长季土壤水解酶和氧化酶活性,解析环境因子在调控土壤酶活性季节变异中的作用。[结果]显示:增温处理在生长季显著提高土壤温度1.91℃,导致土壤有机碳含量显著降低了12.15%,微生物量碳氮显著增加了40.30%和61.29%;增温处理在非生长季显著提高土壤温度2.24℃,但对微生物量碳氮影响并不显著。增温处理对土壤专一酶活性的影响存在季节差异,生长季除N-乙酰-葡糖苷酶外增温处理降低了土壤专一酶活性;非生长季除β-葡糖苷酶和蛋白酶外增温处理增加了土壤专一酶活性。环境因子可以解释土壤专一酶活性变异的82.5%,MBN和NH4-N极显著影响土壤专一酶活性,二者共可以解释变异的59.0%。[结论]MBN和NH4-N是影响土壤专一酶活性的主要环境因子,其他环境因子:土壤水热配比、微生物量碳、微生物量碳氮比、溶解性有机碳和硝态氮等是影响土壤专一酶活性在处理间和季节间变异的主要驱动因子。     

The influence of fire severity,serotiny, and post-fire management on Pinus pinaster Ait. recruitment in three burnt areas in Galicia (NW Spain)

The effect of fire severity and post-fire management on Pinus pinaster recruitment was evaluated in three burnt areas in Galicia (NW Spain) exhibiting different levels of serotiny. Three sites were sampled, each of which had two of the following levels of fire severity: combusted crown, scorched crown and unaffected crown. Viable seed rain was closed related to the canopy cone bank and stand serotiny level. Soil burn severity also favoured seed dispersal. Relative germination success increased with soil burn severity whereas initial and final seedling density depended on both the canopy cone bank and soil burn severity. A positive influence of fire severity on the final/initial seedling density and final density/total seed dispersal ratios was also observed.     

Genetic structure of the green oak leaf roller (Tortrix viridana L.) and one of its hosts, Quercus robur L.

An herbivorous insect, the green oak leaf roller (Tortrix viridana) and one of its host species, pedunculate oak (Quercus robur), were investigated for their genetic variation within and among populations on the basis of mitochondrial, chloroplast, and anonymous markers. Oaks and green oak leaf rollers from 10 oak stands in North Rhine-Westphalia (North-Western Germany) were examined. The genetic variation of pedunculate oaks is much lower within than among populations when assessed using chloroplast gene markers and higher among populations when assessed using anonymous markers. When using mitochondrial and AFLP markers, the genetic variation of the green oak leaf roller populations was higher within than among the populations, which suggests a high gene flow between the populations. Mantel tests on the gene diversities of oaks and the green oak leaf roller yielded a significant negative correlation for both marker types. To sum up, the reasons for the differences in the spatial patterns of the genetic variation of the host and herbivorous insect may be found in their different generation times, mechanisms and capacities for dispersal.The results for the green oak leaf roller revealed a higher migration rate than assumed before which has consequences for the prediction of the dynamics of future outbreak events.     

中国麻栎研究:种源试验、造林和森林经营

可持续经营栎林对于优化我国人工林结构、改善生物多样性、提高生态与经济效益具有重要的现实意义。文中介绍了我国栎树中代表树种——麻栎（Quercus acutissima）的森林经营现状,综述了近10年来在遗传变异研究、种源试验与育苗、造林与森林经营技术方面取得的研究进展,并对我国未来栎树产业发展提出建议和策略。     

Volatile composition analysis by solid-phase microextraction applied to oak wood used in cooperage (Quercus pyrenaica and Quercus petraea): effect of botanical species and toasting process

The purpose of this study was to investigate the sorption of selected volatile substances from oak wood-chip samples (Quercus pyrenaica Willd. and Quercus petraea L.) subjected to different toasting levels, namely, without toasting, with medium toasting, and with strong toasting, through the use of solid-phase microextraction (SPME). The main volatile compounds identified as a function of the toasting level and botanical species were furfural, hexanal, α-pinene, d-limonene, decanal, vitispirane, ethyl hexanoate, cis-3-methyl-γ-octalactone (“oak lactone” or “whisky lactone”), α-terpineol, p-xylene, and nonanal. Considering the data obtained from the toasted woods (medium and strong intensity) in comparison with those of nontoasted woods, it can be pointed out that the average peak area and the number of compounds identified in the gas chromatogram decreased during the toasting process. In general, regarding the compounds analyzed, quantitative differences were found between the two oak wood species under study. High values of volatile compounds were found in Quercus pyrenaica oak wood chips. In addition, for the number of compounds identified in oak wood extracts and directly extracted from solid oak wood chips by SPME, it is concluded that the best extraction process for volatile compounds from oak wood is the use of oak wood-chip liquid extracts.     

乌桕新害虫——中华卡扁蜡蝉的形态及分子鉴定

[目的]介绍发生在贵州省龙里县乌桕上的一种新害虫——中华卡扁蜡蝉的形态及分子鉴定的方法。[方法]对中华卡扁蜡蝉卵、若虫(5龄)及成虫3个虫态的形态特征进行了详细描记;同时通过PCR扩增,获取了中华卡扁蜡蝉的线粒体COI基因序列。利用MEGA 6. 0软件对其序列组成及遗传距离进行分析,以竹鳎扁蜡蝉、红线鳎扁蜡蝉、勐仑鳎扁蜡蝉为外群,采用邻接法(NJ)构建系统发育树。[结果]系统发育树显示中华卡扁蜡蝉10个样品的COI基因序列能较好地聚为一枝;中华卡扁蜡蝉的种内遗传距离为0. 000 0. 065,4种扁蜡蝉科昆虫种间遗传距离为0. 142 0. 202,种内遗传距离与种间遗传距离不存在重叠现象。[结论] COI基因序列可作为DNA条形码片段,实现中华卡扁蜡蝉快速、准确的物种鉴定。初步调查了中华卡扁蜡蝉的发生规律及危害状况。     

毛竹林持续高温干旱灾害特征及影响因素分析

为探讨持续高温干旱灾害天气对毛竹林生长的影响,为毛竹林抗灾减灾及灾后恢复提供参考,调查分析了毛竹林持续高温干旱灾害特征及立地条件、经营水平等对立竹受损程度的影响。结果表明:持续高温干旱天气使毛竹叶片灼伤、枯黄、失绿变白,严重的全株叶片脱落;竹秆脱水、皱缩、枯黄,中下部位出现黑斑,局部表皮灼伤。竹龄越小受损程度越严重,1度竹死亡率显著高于2度及2度以上竹。海拔高度、坡向、坡位、土壤厚度、立竹密度、经营水平等对毛竹林立竹受损程度均有较明显的影响,其中海拔较高毛竹林高于海拔较低毛竹林,阳坡毛竹林显著高于阴坡毛竹林,且上坡>中坡>下坡,土壤厚度<50 cm 毛竹林明显高于土壤厚度>100 cm毛竹林,立竹密度3 750 4 500株·hm^-2和2 250 3 000株·hm^-2毛竹林高于立竹密度3 000 3 750株·hm^-2毛竹林,集约经营毛竹林高于粗放经营毛竹林。典范对应分析(CCA)表明,持续高温干旱灾害对毛竹林的影响因子主要为土壤厚度、坡位,其次为海拔高度、坡向和立竹密度。     

Seedling survival and growth of three species of mountain cloud forest in Mexico,under different canopy treatments

The survival and growth of Quercus germana Schltdl. & Cham., Q. xalapensis Humb. & Bonpl. and Magnolia dealbata Zucc. was evaluated in three treatments: (1) under the canopy of Pinus maximinoi H.E. Moore; (2) under the canopy of Liquidambar macrophylla Oersted, and (3) in open areas. The following hypothesis was presented: P. maximinoi and L. macrophylla canopy facilitate the establishment of Quercus germana, Q. xalapensis, and Magnolia dealbata. After one year, the survival of seedlings and the growth rate in height and basal diameter were significantly different between treatments and species (p < 0.05). The results suggest a facilitation establishment of Magnolia dealbata under the canopy of Pinus and Liquidambar, whereas the tolerance was observed for Quercus germana and Q. xalapensis. The results will allow to identify restoration strategies of the mountain cloud forest in Mexico.Resumen. Se evaluó la supervivencia y crecimiento de Quercus germana, Q. xalapensis y Magnolia dealbata, en tres tratamientos; (1) bajo el dosel de Pinus maximinoi, (2) bajo el dosel de Liquidambar macrophylla y (3) en áreas abiertas. La hipótesis planteada fue; la cobertura de P. maximinoi y L. macrophylla facilitan el establecimiento de Quercus germana, Q. xalapensis y Magnolia dealbata. Después de un año, la sobrevivencia de plántulas, y las tasas de crecimiento en altura y diámetro de la base, fueron significativamente diferentes entre tratamientos y especies (p < 0.05). Los resultados sugieren que el establecimiento de Magnolia dealbata es facilitado bajo el dosel de Pinus y Liquidambar, mientras que para Quercus germana y Q. xalapensis se observó tolerancia. Los resultados permitirán identificar estrategias de rehabilitación del bosque mesófilo de montaña en México.     

The crown shape of an evergreen oak,Quercus glauca, in a hardwood community

The spatial pattern of the crown spread ofQuercus glauca in a hardwood community was investigated in order to consider the effect of the patterns on its survival in a secondary hardwood community. The shape of a crown was defined by the spatial spread of the leaves (PCM crown), and by the spread of their branches (elliptic cylinder crown). The stem volume growth rate of a tree was strongly correlated with the corresponding total leaf area, which was then significantly correlated with the defined crown volume. This indicated that the stem volume growth depended on the crown volume as well as the total leaf area. An increase in leaf area was largely attained by the spatial volume of the crown, not by an increase in the leaf area density. The leaves inside the crown began to spread horizontally relative to the crown size as the total leaf area and tree size increased. On the other hand, for the crowns representing the branch spread, the crown shape (crown width/depth ratio) did not differ by internal leaf area and tree size. Such a spatial pattern was likely to be adaptive for a species that dominates at a mid-stage of secondary sere.     

山楂叶螨种群动态及其危害研究

１５ａ的研究结果表明：在冀中南部果产区,山楂叶螨种群消长呈单峰曲线,不同年份或同一年份不同果园的发生高峰不同,梨、桃园发生在６月下旬至７月中旬,苹果园发生在６月中旬至８月上旬。发生高峰的温湿度界限指标是旬日均温度２６．１４±２．１１℃,日均相对湿度６１．６７％±８．９２％;在发育起点温度（９．２℃）与界限指标温度范围内,种群增长与有效积温呈高度正相关,符合线性函数ｌｏｇｙ＝－３．５５７４＋２．５１９５ｌｏｇｘ,在果园和树冠内的种群空间分布属聚集型;山楂叶螨危害苹果、梨、桃树造成早期落叶的螨口指标分别是叶均３１．７９、３２．３４、１９．４７头（均指雌成螨）,叶片被害指数分别为６１．２７％、６０．０７％和５８．０１％。     

Effects of deer and mice on seedling survival in a temperate mixed forest of Japan

To detect the magnitude of indirect positive effects of deer and mice on seedling survival of some woody species in a Japanese temperate forest, we analyzed the data from an earlier field experiment using a hierarchical Bayesian approach. The forest studied was inhabited by sika deer (Cervus nippon) and mice (Apodemus spp.), and the floor was covered with dwarf bamboo, Sasa nipponica, which negatively affected tree seedlings and was in turn negatively affected by deer and mice. The field experiment was designed as the combination of exclusion or removal of these factors: deer, mice and dwarf bamboo. A hierarchical Bayesian model was constructed and the parameters were estimated by the Markov chain Monte Carlo method. The model successfully showed the indirect positive effects of deer and mice, which improved the survival rate of five cohorts of the seedlings of three tree species by ameliorating the direct negative effect of dwarf bamboo. The cohorts studied were formed by the seedlings of Abies homolepis that emerged in 1997 and 2002, those of Fraxinus lanuginosa f. serrata that emerged in 1998 and 2002, and those of Fagus crenata that emerged in 1999. The positive indirect effect was especially large in F. crenata, which is known to be severely affected by dwarf bamboo. The total effect of deer was shown to be positive for all cohorts except the A. homolepis cohort that emerged in 1997, at which time the dwarf bamboo had not yet fully recovered from the browsing pressure of deer. The total effect of mice was shown to be positive for all of the cohorts. We conclude that these positive effects were due to the large negative effect of dwarf bamboo on the seedlings.     

寄主树木、寄主和环境因子对松褐天牛深沟茧蜂寄生率的影响研究

[目的]松材线虫病是我国对森林危害和威胁最严重的病害,控制其传播媒介昆虫松褐天牛是防治松材线虫病的主要手段。作者发现的松褐天牛深沟茧蜂(Iphiaulax monochamusi Yang)是寄生松褐天牛中老龄幼虫的重要天敌。为明确松褐天牛深沟茧蜂的寄生率与寄主树木、寄主和环境因子的关系,开展了本研究。[方法]通过解剖46株松褐天牛危害致死的马尾松,调查了松褐天牛深沟茧蜂寄生率与马尾松、松褐天牛和环境因子之间的关系。[结果]调查研究表明:寄主树木的高度、胸径和树龄对松褐天牛深沟茧蜂寄生率没有显著影响,松褐天牛的数量对松褐天牛深沟茧蜂寄生率亦没有显著影响,而松褐天牛幼虫龄期和松褐天牛幼虫在树干上的位置显著影响松褐天牛深沟茧蜂寄生率。松褐天牛深沟茧蜂寄生率与松褐天牛龄期呈显著正相关,其偏好寄生3~5龄幼虫;就天牛在其危害寄主树木上的位置而言,松褐天牛深沟茧蜂偏好寄生马尾松主干上部和在韧皮部危害的松褐天牛幼虫,其对位于马尾松树干上部的寄主幼虫寄生率最高,达27.38%,对在韧皮部生活、危害的寄主幼虫寄生率为20.18%,显著高于位于木质部生活的寄主幼虫寄生率(5.46%)。逐步回归分析表明:影响松褐天牛深沟茧蜂寄生率的关键环境因子是寄主树木的坡位和其它天敌寄生率,其中,坡位与松褐天牛深沟茧蜂呈显著正相关,其它天敌寄生率与松褐天牛深沟茧蜂寄生率呈显著负相关。[结论]以上研究初步明确了松褐天牛深沟茧蜂的寄生率与寄主树木、寄主害虫和天敌之间的关系,为今后利用该重要天敌控制松褐天牛打下了基础。     

弗吉尼亚栎种子产量、脱落过程与种子形态特征的变异及稳定性

通过对弗吉尼亚栎引种人工林的调查观察,探讨其种子产量、脱落过程与种子形态特征的变异规律。在浙江省绍兴市上虞区滨海盐土上栽种的树龄9~11年生、栽植密度1 200株·hm^-2的弗栎林分中,2012—2014年间随机标定35~42株母树定期观测脱落种子质量和年产量,并分析相同母树的种子产量、脱落期和种子大小与形状的个体差异及年度稳定性。连续3 a内弗栎平均单株种子产量分别为2.32 kg(变幅0.00~8.51 kg)、1.38 kg(0.03~5.61 kg)和2.92 kg(0.40~6.58 kg)。整个林分种子脱落过程历时长达80100 d,落籽量的累计分布十分吻合Logistic模型,种子年产量的69.79%~82.56%在11月上旬至12月上旬的40 d内脱落。26株相同母树的种子产量存在显著的株间差异和年度差异(P≤0.001 3),单株种子产量的年度变异系数值变化于9.78%138.76%。种子脱落开始期、高峰期、停止期的早迟也存在极显著的株间和年度差异(P≤0.000 5),年度相关较高(r=0.42~0.67^**)。种子百粒质量、种子长度、种子宽度和形状指数(种子长宽比)的株间差异极显著(P≤0.000 4),但年度差异不明显,年度相关更高(r=0.64^**~0.87^**),种子形状是最稳定的特征。该研究表明,10 a左右的弗栎人工林具有相当高的种子生产能力,但单株间种子产量的差异巨大,年度稳定性较差;种子脱落期和种子形态特征的个体变异极其丰富,且较稳定;通过长期观察,可以识别出相对稳定的高产型、低产型和早熟型、晚熟型母树。