Making the user visible: analysing irrigation practices and farmers’ logic to explain actual drip irrigation performance

The actual performance of drip irrigation (irrigation efficiency, distribution uniformity) in the field is often quite different from that obtained in experimental stations. We developed an approach to explain the actual irrigation performance of drip irrigation systems by linking measured performances to farmers’ irrigation practices, and these practices to the underlying logic of farmers who operate these systems. This approach was applied to 22 farms in Morocco. Four sets of variables helped explain the gap between the actual irrigation performance and the performance obtained in experimental conditions: (1) farmers have agro-economic motivations or want to improve their social status, and for them, irrigation performance is at best an intermediate objective. (2) Irrigation performance is not a static value, but a rapidly evolving process, related to the (perceived) ability of farmers to change irrigation practices and renew irrigation equipment, but also to farmers’ aspirations. (3) The social network of farmers, supporting the introduction and use of drip irrigation, determines how farmers may share experience, information and know-how related to drip irrigation. (4) Today, there is no social pressure to irrigate carefully to save water; only the state explicitly links the use of drip irrigation to saving water. Making the drip user visible in research and policy studies would lead to more realistic assessments of irrigation performance and draw the attention of policy makers to the actual conditions in which drip irrigation is used, and as a consequence help incorporate ‘saving water’ as an objective for drip irrigation users.     

Exploring regional irrigation water demand using typologies of farms and production units: An example from Tunisia

Most methods used to predict irrigation water consumption at a regional scale are based on biophysical models and cropping patterns. Their aim is to provide accurate estimations of “water demand” that are useful for water resource management. However, in the case of free access to the water resource, for example pumping from a water table, it is only possible to prevent overexploitation by “managing” the demand for water, which thus needs to focus on farmers’ choices and behavior. In this paper, we propose a framework to represent agricultural activities using typologies of farms and production units aggregated at a regional scale. The framework can be used to estimate consumption of irrigation water and of other inputs, as well as the production of outputs. The framework can also be used to evaluate the effects of technical, economic or institutional changes on farm income, and to predict the consequences of changes for farmers’ choices at regional scale. We used this method in Central Tunisia to estimate irrigation water demand in 1999. We then simulated the changes that would occur if drip irrigation were adopted. The results of the simulation showed some savings in water and in labor, and, with fertigation, an increase in yields. Using drip irrigation would consequently enable farmers to extend the area of drip-irrigated land. We then simulated the widespread adoption of drip irrigation and the resulting extension of irrigated areas: the results showed no savings in water at the regional scale. These hypotheses were confirmed in 2005 using new typologies to estimate the new demand for irrigation water. We also simulated the effects of economic changes on farm incomes. A major increase in the cost of water affected a minority of farms, which consumed only 17% of total irrigation water, whereas a slight decrease in watermelon and melon prices affected a majority of farms, which consumed 78% of total irrigation water. Water demand management tools therefore need to focus on the effects of technical, economic, or institutional changes and on farmers’ choices.     

‘More crop per drop’: how to make it acceptable for farmers?

In countries facing water scarcity, governmental water agencies try to transfer this constraint to farmers, e.g. by encouraging them to shift from traditional to localized irrigation methods to save water. However, water shortage is often much less a problem for farmers than soil limitations, their objective being mostly to maximize their income per cultivated area (US$ per hectare rather than per cubic meter of water). This discrepancy can only be solved if governments find ways to ‘transfer’ water scarcity, e.g. through economic incentives such as water pricing and/or subsidies. The aim of this study was to address the question of how to match the interest of both water managers and farmers. We aimed particularly at evaluating whether shifting to drip irrigation is a relevant way to save water and increase farmer's income.Our analysis was based on the interactive impacts among economic, environmental, technical and methodological parameters on the net productivity of two crops. We focused on the case study of Turkey considering two crops with contrasted gross productivity, tomato and cotton, characterized by partial vegetation cover during a large part of crop cycle. A 3D crop energy balance model was applied showing that crop transpiration is increased by up to 10% when shifting from furrow to drip irrigation. These results were used to correct the maximal evapotranspiration (ET_m), estimated with the simple “crop coefficient” (K_c) method, and then used to enhance net productivity estimation both for furrow and drip irrigation.The results suggest that water managers and farmers share a common interest in adopting drip irrigation of tomato. Inversely, interests divergence may increase with low/medium value crops as cotton; the combination between water pricing and subsidies could be a way of agreement, but it would require subsidies for irrigation equipment of at least 40%, for low water tariffs, to 60%, for high water tariffs, to make the transfer from furrow to drip irrigation acceptable. This approach appeared generic enough to be applied for other economic, technical or environmental conditions, to modernize irrigation by harmonizing constraints faced by water managers and farmers.     

The challenges of wastewater irrigation in developing countries

The volume of wastewater generated by domestic, industrial and commercial sources has increased with population, urbanization, improved living conditions, and economic development. The productive use of wastewater has also increased, as millions of small-scale farmers in urban and peri-urban areas of developing countries depend on wastewater or wastewater polluted water sources to irrigate high-value edible crops for urban markets, often as they have no alternative sources of irrigation water. Undesirable constituents in wastewater can harm human health and the environment. Hence, wastewater irrigation is an issue of concern to public agencies responsible for maintaining public health and environmental quality. For diverse reasons, many developing countries are still unable to implement comprehensive wastewater treatment programs. Therefore in the near term, risk management and interim solutions are needed to prevent adverse impacts from wastewater irrigation. A combination of source control, and farm-level and post-harvest measures can be used to protect farm workers and consumers. The WHO guidelines revised in 2006 for wastewater use suggest measures beyond the traditional recommendations of producing only industrial or non-edible crops, as in many situations it is impossible to enforce a change in the current cash crop pattern, or provide alternative vegetable supply to urban markets.There are several opportunities for improving wastewater management via improved policies, institutional dialogues and financial mechanisms, which would reduce the risks in agriculture. Effluent standards combined with incentives or enforcement can motivate improvements in water management by household and industrial sectors discharging wastewater from point sources. Segregation of chemical pollutants from urban wastewater facilitates treatment and reduces risk. Strengthening institutional capacity and establishing links between water delivery and sanitation sectors through inter-institutional coordination leads to more efficient management of wastewater and risk reduction.     

Water markets and soil salinity nexus: Can minimum irrigation intensities address the issue?

Agricultural water markets can facilitate adjustments to water scarcity and competition and enhance economic efficiency, but markets cannot automatically balance efficiency, equity and environmental sustainability goals. The consequences of water trading on soil salinity in irrigation areas are not yet fully understood, but recognized as an issue that needs to be analysed. This paper explores the nexus between water trading and groundwater-induced soil salinity in a selected irrigated area in the Murray-Darling Basin. Results show that minimum irrigation intensities must be met to flush salts out of the root zone especially in shallow water table/high salinity impact areas. Such minimum irrigation intensities are helpful but not necessarily in deep water table/low salinity impact areas. Should water markets lead to permanent water transfers out of mature irrigation areas, minimum irrigation intensity needs might not be met in high salinity impact areas, causing substantial negative impacts on resource quality and agricultural productivity. Water trading that adds to salinity cannot be economically viable in the long run. The tradeoffs between water trading and environmental and equity goals need to be determined. This work contributes to the wider debate on Australian water policy aimed at achieving water security through water trading in the Murray-Darling Basin.     

Access to groundwater and agricultural production in China

Although the ways in which farmers access irrigation services in areas that rely on groundwater have changed over the past decade, little empirical work has measured the impact of these changes. This is surprising given the potential effects—both positive and negative. In this paper we explore the impacts of the emergence of the markets for irrigation services from groundwater on agricultural production - including crop water use and crop yields - and farmer income in northern China. From a survey of 35 randomly sampled villages and 338 households in two provinces (Hebei and Henan Provinces) in 2001 and 2004, we show that when farmers access water from markets for irrigation services, they significantly reduce water use, compared with farmers who have their own tubewells. However, there is no significant difference between the volume of water used by farmers who access irrigation services provided by the village, and the volume used by farmers who access water from markets for irrigation services. Importantly, although water use decreases, we find little effect on either agricultural productivity (yields) or income.     

Linking water market functioning, access to water resources and farm production strategies: example from Pakistan

As a response to inadequacy in canal water supplies, farmers in Pakistan have invested in private tubewells to control irrigation water resources. Also, they participate in surface water and groundwater markets that take place within tertiary units of the irrigation system.The present paper describes the functioning and organization of these water markets, using information collected in sample watercourses of the Fordwah Branch irrigation system, South-Punjab, Pakistan. The variability in type and intensity of water markets is investigated with regard to access to water resources and farm production strategies and constraints.     

Measuring the willingness of farmers to pay for groundwater in the highland areas of Jordan

The main objective of this paper is to estimate the willingness of farmers to pay for groundwater resources under different conditions of water supply regimes. Information available on water supplies, areas under irrigation and market conditions were the basis of the calculations. In order to identify solutions that maximize the total net income subject to resource restraints, parametric linear programming models were used to derive farmers’ willingness to pay for irrigation water. Results showed that there is potential to decrease water consumption and to reallocate it in an optimal way. Optimal reallocation increased the net agricultural income in the study area. The water demand for agriculture reacts to increasing water prices in a quite elastic manner over a long interval, whereas it reacts inelastic in the case of a decrease of the overall water supply by 15%. Farmers are willing to pay two and a half times the prevailing price of groundwater. The results show that the water values in the region are underestimated and the decision makers can impose a price level for groundwater from US$ 0.14 to 0.35/m³ without having any impact on the cropping pattern or the planted area.     

Establishing tradable water rights: implementation of the Mexican water law

Mexico passed a new water law in 1992 that shifted from state-managed water policy to a regulated market-oriented policy with tradable water rights. Water trading will initially be closely supervised by government agencies, but the law includes a number of provisions that will allow liberalization of water markets as water users become more involved in operation and management of water and gain experience in water trading. Incentives for the Mexican water policy reforms include the growing economic value of increasingly scarce water; the rising budgetary costs from highly subsidized capital development and operations and maintenance for irrigation and water supply systems; and general liberalization of the Mexican economy, which has raised the cost of maintaining relatively inflexible water allocation systems that cannot respond to changing incentives.     

农业用水户的水费承受能力及其对农业水价改革的态度——来自云南和新疆灌区的实地调研

农业水价改革是调节农户灌溉行为,促进农业节水实现的重要政策工具。探讨农业用水户的实际水费承受能力及其对农业水价改革的反映对于制定合理的农业水价政策具有重要的意义。文章通过对新疆和云南144户农户入户调查问卷的分析,从家庭特征,水费支出情况、水费承受能力以及对水价浮动的反映等几个方面分析和探讨了农业用水户面对不同水价政策变动的态度和应对措施,认为农业用水户作为基本生产单位,其应对农业水价改革的决策行为是“理性的”和“利己的”,国家制定的相关政策只有在能够充分考虑到农户的实际反应是才能发挥最大的政策效应。     

On-farm labour allocation and irrigation water use: case studies among smallholder systems in arid regions

On-farm measurements and observations of water flow, water costs and irrigation labour inputs at the individual parcel level were made in case studies of smallholder irrigation systems in sub-Saharan Africa and south-eastern Arabia. The systems, in which the water source supplied either single or multiple users, were analysed to address the fundamental issues of labour allocation for on-farm water management as this has important consequences for the success of such systems. Results show that the costs associated with accessing water influenced labour input, because when they were low the farmers tended to increase the irrigation rate and reduce the amount of time they spent distributing the water within their parcels. Conversely when water costs were high, lower flow rates and more time spent in water distribution were observed, and this resulted in more uniform irrigation and higher irrigation efficiency. Also, opportunities and demands for farmers to use their labour for activities other than irrigation can lead them to modify operational or physical aspects of the system so that they can reduce the time they spend distributing water within the parcels, particularly when the water is relatively cheap. Awareness and better understanding of how farmers may allocate their labour for water management will lead to more effective planning, design and management of smallholder irrigation systems.     

Farm-level perspectives regarding irrigation water prices in the Tulkarm district, Palestine

Agriculture consumes about 70% of water available in the Occupied Palestinian Territories. Domestic and industrial users utilize 30% of the water supply. Water resource managers are considering the policy of reallocating a portion of the water supply from agriculture to other uses. It is believed that increasing irrigation water prices could influence water consumption and thus make water available for non-agricultural (more economic) uses. This paper examines the impacts of water pricing on agricultural water consumption and farming profitability and provides some guidelines for policy makers regarding water pricing as a tool to manage scarce water resources. We estimate a regression model describing agricultural water consumption as a function of water prices, irrigated land area, farm income, and irrigation frequency, using data collected in a survey of about 150 farmers in the Tulkarm district. We conclude that irrigation water prices are perceived as high and comprise a large portion of total farming expenses. Therefore, attempts to increase irrigation water prices in the Tulkarm district might jeopardize farming feasibility and might have substantial impacts on agricultural water consumption. Nevertheless, many farmers would continue farming even if the water prices were increased beyond their willingness to pay threshold.     

引黄灌溉用水权有偿转让机制研究

根据目前我国市场经济发展状况，对引黄灌溉用水权的有偿转让机制、目前黄河灌区引黄灌溉用水权的转让现状、引黄灌溉用水权的有偿转让过程中已出现的问题以及怎样解决、怎样保护农民的合法权益、引黄灌溉用水权的有偿转让途径与方法等进行了研究。研究结果证明，实现引黄灌溉用水权的有偿转让，对于实现黄河水资源优化配置，提高水资源的利用效率与效益，寻求节约用水的途径、政策、方法、措施及法规等综合对策，保护农民的合法权益，使农民得到受益，节水灌溉工程得以改善，促进当地经济的快速发展，保护生态环境等都具有十分重要的意义。     

Assessing the irrigation strategies over a wide geographical area from structural data about farming systems

Accurate estimation of regional water demand by agriculture, mainly consumed by farmers for irrigation, is a key requirement for water management. It depends on the farmers’ irrigation practices which itself depend on the farmers’ irrigation strategies. Describing irrigation strategies over a region is rather difficult due to the large number and the diversity of farmers. We seek whether it is possible to characterise irrigation strategies from easily accessible farm characteristics data at the regional scale. For that purpose, we investigated the relationships between maize irrigation strategies and three farming sub-systems: the production system, the water resource system and the irrigation equipment system.Based on a 56-farmers survey of maize irrigation strategies carried out in two different areas in south-western France, we firstly created typologies from the three farming sub-systems and from irrigation strategies and, in a second step, analysed the links between the different typologies. Multivariate analyses, cluster analyses, linear regressions and regression trees were used for that purpose.Only two types of irrigation strategies were found that could not be fully explained by the three sub-systems typologies. However, the theoretical irrigation capacity explains a part of the irrigation strategies. Such data can be obtained at a wide geographical scale from administrative data bases.Strategic management of irrigation is similar amongst farmers in a given area while more operational actions differ from farmer to farmer. Standardisation of strategies due to county-based advice is then discussed.     

建立灌区农民用水者协会的探讨

建立农民用水者协会（ＷＵＡ），国家将支、分渠系灌溉工程的使用与管理权移交给农民，这符合我国政府关于水利工程分级管理的方针政策，对促进灌区工程体制改革，适应社会主义市场经济新要求，实现灌区自我维护，自我发展，经济自立，均具有较大的实践意义。１９９５年４月，湖北省人民政府办公厅３３号文同意在湖北省世行贷款项目区内开展经济自立灌溉区试点工作，并将漳河水库三干渠三分干灌区首批列入试点，在省世行贷款水利项目办公室和荆门市人民政府领导和支持下，通过一年的试点工作实践，先后组建了１１个农民用水者协会，并开始试运行。作者就组建农民用水者协会过程中涉及的有关问题从理论上进行了初步总结。     

Efficiency gains from water markets: Empirical analysis of Watermove in Australia

We analyse supply, demand, and welfare measures in markets where the temporary trading of water rights is reasonably active and liquid on a weekly basis. We identify four important characteristics of water trading within the Watermove program: (1) demand is highly responsive to price changes, supporting evidence that farmers’ participation is driven by the advantages water markets provide in reducing seasonal risk; (2) some efficiency enhancing trades are prevented from taking place due to physical limitations of the delivery system, thereby reducing the ability of the market to move toward equilibrium. In addition, these limitations also created price premiums in some zones; (3) variations in the types of products traded are explained by differences in the administrative charges for trading and current drought conditions; and (4) relatively large gains have been made thus far, suggesting that water markets will expand and generate additional increases in consumer and producer surplus in the future.     

Bad for the environment, good for the farmer? Urban sanitation and nutrient flows

Due to poor urban sanitation farmers in and around most cities in developing countries face highly polluted surface water. While the sanitation challenge has obvious implications for environmental pollution and food safety it can also provide ‘free’ nutrients for irrigating farmers. To understand the related dimensions, a box-flow model was used to identify the most important water and nutrient flows for the Ghanaian city of Kumasi, a rapidly growing African city with significant irrigation in its direct vicinity. The analysis focused on nitrogen and phosphorus and was supplemented by a farm based nutrient balance assessment. Results show that the city constitutes a vast nutrient sink that releases considerable nutrients loads in its passing streams, contributing to the eutrophication of downstream waters. However, farmers have for various practical reasons little means and motivation in using this resource of nutrients. This might change under increasing fertilizer prices as the nutrient load will continue to increase by 40% till 2015 assuming a widening gap between population growth and investments in water supply on one side and investments in sanitation on the other. However, even a strong investment into flushing toilets would not reduce environmental pollution due to the dominance of on-site sanitation systems, but instead strongly increase water competition. Key options to reduce the nutrient load would be via optimized waste collection and investment in dry or low-flush toilets. The latter seems also appropriate for the city to meet the water and sanitation Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) without increasing water shortages in toilet connected households.     

Comparing water management in rice-wheat production systems in Haryana, India and Punjab, Pakistan

The intensive irrigated rice-wheat systems in the northwest Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia are built on a long tradition of canal irrigation and the more recent advent of tubewells. Findings from farm surveys are used to examine water management and water productivity in the rice-wheat belt of India's Haryana State and Pakistan's Punjab province. Attributes of the irrigation sources help explain the widespread interest in groundwater use and the relative demise of canal water use. In each area groundwater now is the main irrigation source, used either solely or in conjunction with surface water. The ownership of tubewells is near universal among the surveyed farms, whereas conjunctive water use is more widespread during the monsoon season, among better endowed farmers and in the Pakistan Punjab. In Pakistan Punjab farmers primarily rely on diesel powered tubewells whereas Haryana farmers mainly use relatively cheaper electric power. Water productivity indicators for rice are markedly lower than those for wheat—largely reflecting significantly higher water inputs in paddy cultivation—but also vary between the study areas and by the prevailing water use, reflecting the limited incentives for farmers to use water wisely. A combination of technological, land use and market based approaches is likely to be most effective in achieving sustainable water management in these intensive cereal systems.     

The financial viability of irrigation management companies: A case study of Cu Chi irrigation system,Vietnam

A crucial, yet little understood, element in the economic studies of irrigation is the role played by companies who manage the supply of water. Many of these companies are publicly managed as they have the potential to act as monopolists. Possibly as a consequence of their ownership structure, analysts have questioned the economic viability and management of these firms. The case is made that many of these companies do not run profitably, that they rely on government subsidies to survive, that they do not spend enough on maintenance and that they run down their capital base. The purpose in this paper is to specify the measures that allow analysts to examine the financial viability of a publicly owned irrigation management companies and to apply these to a scheme in Vietnam. Of concern and contention in any irrigation scheme is the price that a company should charge for water in order to recover costs in the short-run. It was found that the company under investigation could not operate without subsidies and did run down their assets. It was found that a great disparity exists between what the consumers were charged for water and what the company received for supplying it. To ensure the sustainability of the Irrigation Management Companies in long term, they may have to increase the water fee by 3.75 times the current rate set by the provincial government (US$ 20 per ha).     

A measure for the efficiency of water use and its determinants,a case study of small-scale irrigation schemes in North-West Province,South Africa

This paper analyses the efficiency with which water is used in small-scale irrigation schemes in North-West Province in South Africa and studies its determinants. In the study area, small-scale irrigation schemes play an important role in rural development, but the increasing pressure on water resources and the approaching introduction of water charges raise the concern for more efficient water use. With the data envelopment analysis (DEA) techniques used to compute farm-level technical efficiency measures and sub-vector efficiencies for water use, it was shown that under constant returns to scale (CRS) and variable returns to scale (VRS) specification, substantial technical inefficiencies, of 49% and 16%, respectively, exist among farmers. The sub-vector efficiencies for water proved to be even lower, indicating that if farmers became more efficient using the technology currently available, it would be possible to reallocate a fraction of the irrigation water to other water demands without threatening the role of small-scale irrigation. In a second step, Tobit regression techniques were used to examine the relationship between sub-vector efficiency for water and various farm or farmer characteristics. Farm size, landownership, fragmentation, the type of irrigation scheme, crop choice and the irrigation methods applied showed a significant impact on the sub-vector efficiency for water. Such information is valuable for extension services and policy makers since it can help to guide policies towards increased efficiency.