Chinese experience on plastic membrane-concrete thin slab lining for canals

Of the many types of canal linings in the world, concrete, compacted earth and buried plastic membrane linings are most commonly used. Another type of canal lining — plastic membrane-concrete thin slab lining — has been used in China since 1975. It has the advantages of both plastic and concrete linings, including good seepage control, smooth lining surface, steeper side slopes, effective film valve to eliminate external water pressure, reliability, durability, and lower construction cost. This type of canal lining is a viable alternative to other types of linings, especially in developing countries where the cost of labor is low or farmland is limited.     

USBR canal lining experience

The US Bureau of Reclamation has been constructing irrigation water distribution systems since the early 1900s in the 17 Western United States. The advent of this construction soon necessitated a means for preventing excessive seepage from some canals or portions thereof. Numerous types of linings have been installed including concrete, asphalt, masonry, buried plastic membrane, exposed membrane, compacted earth, etc., with varying degrees of success. The three most commonly used at the present are concrete, buried plastic membrane, and compacted earth. Although not a type of lining, buried pipelines are also used extensively and among other advantages they reduce seepage losses very significantly.     

Bonding of soil and of sediment cleaned from channels by cement into blocks for lining irrigation channels

Water diverted from rivers to canals and then to fields brings along a heavy sediment load. According to estimates, the elevation of irrigated fields in the Indus Basin has increased up to 8 cm due to deposition of sediment from irrigation water. The deposition of sediment in the canals, distributaries and watercourses is a common concern. Each year during the winter, the canals are closed for desilting the conveyance system. Sediment deposited in the farmer-managed watercourses is piled along the watercourse banks, which takes fertile land out of production. This study was conducted to evaluate the possibilities of preparing cement blocks with soils and with sediments removed from the watercourses and using them in low cost linings to decrease losses from watercourses. Soil–cement and sediment–cement blocks were prepared, and tested for strength, durability and ability to reduce losses from watercourses. Compositions of the soil and of the sediments removed from the channels were determined. Blocks mortared into walls lining the sides of these channels reduced losses to less than 20% of losses in unlined old channels. Plastering the inside of these walls reduced water losses to less than 1% of the losses occurring in old unlined channels. Sediment–cement blocks were easier to make and they develop greater strength than soil–cement blocks. Cost of channel lining, using these blocks, appears to be about 2/3 of costs using fired brick masonry.     

Soil-cement tiles for lining irrigation canals

Laboratory flume test was conducted to investigate the effect of flowing water an soil-cement canal tiles. For this purpose, soil-cement tiles were constructed from different soils at various cement contents. A flume, 3 metre long and 100 mm wide, was lined with the tiles and the lined bed was subjected to flow velocities of around 2 m/s for a period of 7 days. The tiles made from coarse-textured soil (sandy loam and silt loam) aggregates of 5 mm and from fine textured soil (clay loam) aggregates of 2 mm size were found to be intact and smooth even when constructed at a cement contents lower than that needed to meet the durability requirements.Attempts were also made to measure seepage losses of soil-cement tile linings. A channel section of approximately 1 metre length with a side slope of 1:1 was constructed in the laboratory with the tiles and seepage losses measured by the ponding method were found to be in the range of 0.00123–0.00343 m³/m²/day.The results clearly suggest that soil-cement tiles (irrespective of type of soil) made with 2 mm or less size of soil aggregates are erosion resistant and due to very little or negligible rates of seepage losses, the soil-cement tile lining of irrigation canals is expected to be very promising especially in the areas where irrigation water is costly.     

Design and application of a lining machine of prefabricated components used in triple-hinged arch soft rock tunnels of irrigation works

This paper introduces a new machine used to line triple-hinged soft rock tunnels for irrigation works and its method of application. This kind of equipment has been used successfully in the construction of a number of tunnels in the Yindaruqin Irrigation Project in the Gansu Province. Its features are its simple structure, low cost and ease of operation with satisfactory lining results. The machine is, therefore, highly recommended for tunnel lining with prefabricated components. The method of lining tunnels in soft rock with prefabricated components is much faster than in situ concrete; furthermore, it can provide the tunnel with timely support; hence, construction work is much safer and a considerable amount of funds can be saved. The novel design of this machine has won the Gansu Provincial Water Conservancy Science and Technology Progress award.     

文登抽水蓄能电站工程区地下水三维非稳定渗流场的数值模拟

抽水蓄能电站建设中的尾水隧洞开挖可能引起的周围地下环境的变化,在水文地质条件和工程地质特征的分析的基础上,研究了文登抽水蓄能电站工程区地下水分布特征和平硐、尾水隧洞开挖引起的强排水特征,概化出工程区水文地质概念模型,建立了工程区地下水三维非稳定渗流模型。采用求解有自由面渗流场的改进的截止负压法、改进的排水子结构法、管道子结构法和预处理共轭梯度法等理论对文登抽水蓄能电站平洞开挖和尾水隧洞开挖（衬砌后）不同施工阶段的非稳定渗流场进行了数值模拟分析。研究了尾水隧洞开挖（不衬砌）后、尾水隧洞开挖衬砌后这两种方案下地下水渗流场动态变化过程及对周围地下水环境的影响。计算结果表明：①平硐和水道系统开挖对研究区地下水位下降有着直接的影响,且影响较大。②尾水隧洞衬砌300d后,地下水流场基本恢复至稳定状态。     

Nitrate-N loadings through subsurface environment to agricultural drainage ditches in two flat Midwestern (USA) watersheds

A study was conducted to understand the contributions of tile flow and baseflow to total nitrate-N (NO₃-N) loadings in two subsurface (tile)-drained watersheds, namely the Big Ditch (BD) and the Upper Embarras River (UER) watersheds in Illinois. Two stream sections were selected in the watersheds and rectangular cutthroat flumes were installed at the upstream and downstream ends of the stream sections to calculate the flow mass balance for separating baseflow. The stream section at BD site had two tile outlets draining into it. The stream section at UER watershed did not have any tile drain. Tile flow was also measured along with stream flow. Water samples were collected not only from the stream sections using auto-samplers but also manually from the tile drains. Average baseflow rates per unit lengths of the stream sections at BD and UER sites were 3.5 × 10⁻⁰⁴ and 9.4 × 10⁻⁰⁵ m² s⁻¹, respectively. At BD site, for six study periods, the percentages of baseflow and tile flow contributions of NO₃-N loads within the stream section were 90 and 10%, respectively. Annual NO₃-N contributions by the upstream subwatersheds for BD and UER stream sections were 61,819 and 16,155 kg, respectively. Annual NO₃-N loss from these two subwatersheds within BD and UER watersheds was 42.9 and 7.0 kg ha⁻¹, respectively. For the stream section at BD site, baseflow seemed to play a more important role than tile flow in raising the NO₃-N concentration level in the stream water. Land use seemed to play a major role in the significant difference in NO₃-N concentrations at the two subwatersheds upstream from the project sites. Nitrate-N loadings primarily depended on precipitation, antecedent moisture condition (AMC), fertilizer application time, and evapotranspiration (ET).     

输水隧洞衬砌混凝土施工期温度观测与应力分析

为了研究输水隧洞衬砌混凝土施工期的温度和应力变化规律，根据罗斯法水利枢纽输水隧洞衬砌混凝土边墙的温度观测成果，采用嵌固板理论对衬砌的混凝土边墙的温度应力进行了简化计算分析。得出了特殊点温度历时曲线和典型点应力历时曲线，并对衬砌混凝土的温度控制提出了一些有益的建议。     

外加剂和掺和料对砂浆性能影响的

当前，在水工棍凝土工程中，抹而砂浆的强度和抗渗性能越来越受到人们的重视通过对比试验，研究了减水剂、引气剂单掺、复掺及与硅粉、粉煤灰复掺，对砂浆强度和抗渗性能的影响，并从机理方面分析它们改善砂浆性能的原因结论是:减水剂、引气剂与硅粉、粉煤灰适当配比复掺，对砂浆的强度和抗渗性能的改善显著     

复式断面渠道渠系水利用系数测算方法研究

【目的】研究采用复式断面渠道的灌区渠系水利用系数更精确地测算方法。【方法】采用动水测定法测定了渠道各断面水力要素,之后通过修订后的戴维斯-威尔逊公式和考斯加科夫渠道渗漏经验公式求得研究区域复式断面渠道渠系水利用系数,对比分析了各渠道水损失以及渠系水损失量。【结果】动水测定法更适合不断流复式断面渠道水力要素的测算;采用标准梯形断面渠道衬砌的方式渠道损失最小;考斯加科夫渠道渗漏经验公式求得灌区渠系水利用系数为0.75,而戴维斯-威尔逊公式求得灌区渠系水利用系数为0.82,更加接近实际值0.86,精确度提高了9.5%。【结论】由于占地、开挖等影响因素,灌区渠系衬砌后多形成复式断面渠道,灌区渠道衬砌优先采用标准梯形断面衬砌方式。对于这类渠系工程,动水测定方法明显优于典型渠道测量方法,戴维斯-威尔逊公式也更适用于复式断面渠道的渠系水利用系数的测定。     

论碾压混凝土坝上游面喷丙乳砂浆的防渗作用

碾压混凝土具有施工速度快，水泥用量少，投资省等明显的优点。国内的理论研究和工程实践都取得了突飞猛进的进展，在防渗问题方面也进行了卓有成效的探索，如福建省几座已建成的碾压混凝土坝均采用不同的防渗类型。文章结合福建省重点工程连江山仔水利枢纽工程碾压混凝土坝的施工情况，介绍了能够充分发挥碾压混凝土坝快速施工特点的悬臂钢模、改性混凝土的施工方法，论述了喷丙乳砂浆作为碾压混凝土坝上游主防渗体与这一施工特点相统一所具有的优越性。     

Operation and maintenance experience with various canal linings

Responses from questionnaires sent to 29 established projects are presented on the questions of operations and maintenances of existing canal lining and the choice of linings in future project construction. Cost data yielded some important comparisons. Unreinforced concrete was the choice of O&M personnel in frost-free regions with choice in heavy-frost areas dependent on water table and soil type.The views expressed in this paper are those of the author and are not presented as official or unofficial views of the World Bank.     

三铰拱隧洞预制构件衬砌安装台车组研制与施工

软弱围岩隧洞在设计上采用钢筋混凝土装配式预制构件衬砌的方式近年来越来越多，但在施工上还一直没有形成一套较完善的衬砌安装方法。现介绍一套适用于不同洞径的预制构件衬砌安装台车组，为今后同类隧洞的建设提供一种参考方法。     

模袋混凝土衬砌渠道冻胀破坏力学模型及应用

为了探究寒区模袋混凝土梯形衬砌渠道冻胀破坏力学模型,通过总结寒区模袋混凝土梯形衬砌渠道的冻胀破坏形式,对模袋混凝土梯形衬砌渠道发生冻胀破坏的机理进行分析,并结合大量的野外试验,对寒区模袋混凝土衬砌渠道的受力问题进行研究.在此基础上,通过对衬砌渠道合理的假设和简化,提出了模袋混凝土梯形衬砌渠道受冻胀破坏的力学模型,推导出模袋混凝土在空洞处内力表达式,同时总结了模袋混凝土衬砌结构发生冻胀破坏的判断准则.通过有关规范确定了最大法向冻胀力和切向冻结力,即可求出模袋混凝土的内力,并对模袋混凝土的厚度进行验算,为今后的工程设计提供一定的理论依据.在实际工程中,模袋混凝土衬砌结构在空洞处容易发生断裂破坏,应避免模袋混凝土衬砌结构出现空洞现象.     

翼柱型量水槽在3种常用渠道上的应用性能对比试验研究

翼柱型量水槽是一种新型量水槽,其应用在灌区具有成本低、便于修建、量水精度高的特点。【目的】探讨翼柱型量水槽在矩形渠道、梯形渠道、U形渠道上的适用范围。【方法】试验在矩形渠道、梯形渠道、U形渠道上分别设计3种收缩比的量水槽,在不同流量工况下进行试验,并对测流精度、佛汝德数、水头损失、壅水高度等进行比较分析。【结果】拟合出矩形渠道、梯形渠道、U形渠道不同收缩比量水槽的流量公式,平均误差分别为0.42%、1.34%、1.65%,均满足规范误差小于5%的要求;翼柱型量水槽在3种渠道上游佛汝德数Fr均小于0.4,在U形渠道上游Fr最小;翼柱型量水槽在3种渠道上最大临界淹没度均大于0.85,应用于U形渠道的最大临界淹没度最高;矩形渠道修筑翼柱型量水槽产生的水头损失占上游总水头比例最小。【结论】翼柱型量水槽可用于灌区节水续建配套,同一比降条件下,矩形渠道与U形渠道衔接位置应用翼柱型量水槽效果最佳。     

深溪沟水电站上游围堰渗流稳定计算结果分析

水利工程建设中,为了避免因围堰失事而造成毁灭性的破坏,需要对围堰的防渗、稳定等问题予以更多的重视.通过对大渡河深溪沟水电站上游围堰三维渗流稳定计算结果进行分析,比较了悬挂式防渗墙与全封闭防渗墙的差别,验证了土工膜和混凝土防渗墙的复合防渗体系的设计方案的合理性.     

溪洛渡水电站无压泄洪洞衬砌混凝土秋季施工温控方案优选

为研究溪洛渡水电站无压泄洪洞秋季施工的温控防裂问题,运用三维有限元法模拟施工过程与温控措施,通过改变混凝土表面的热对流系数来模拟洒水、流水养护的影响,采用直接法模拟冷却水管的作用。运用ANSYS软件对1.0m厚衬砌混凝土秋季施工的5种工况,包括基本工况、基本工况加洒水养护、恒温流水养护、加洒水及恒温流水养护、无通水冷却,进行了仿真计算。通过比较相应工况中特定断面的表面点在不同时间的温度应力值和抗裂安全系数,得出结论:洒水能够有效降低拉应力;常温流水会加大内表温差;通水冷却有效降低最高温度,但应力改善效果不明显。秋季浇筑混凝土,早期宜洒水和通水冷却,后期恒温流水养护,这样能够有效避免温度裂缝的产生。     

弧底梯形渠的冻胀试验研究

混凝土衬砌弧底梯形渠道具有较好的抗冻胀性能,在我国北方大、中型防渗衬砌渠道中广泛应用,为了进一步探索衬砌厚度与冻胀变形的规律,在工程现场进行了不同工况的试验,总结了衬砌厚度与冻胀变形的规律,并应用价值工程理论对其技术经济指标进行了分析。     

Impacts of concrete lining of irrigation canals on availability of water for domestic use in southern Sri Lanka

Irrigation schemes have contributed to the availability of water not only for agriculture but also for domestic use by rural households. In the Uda Walawe irrigation scheme in southern Sri Lanka, irrigation canals are being lined with concrete to save water, meant to enable extension of the irrigated area. The effects of lining on the availability of water for multiple uses were investigated by field measurements of water levels and by an inventory of the perceptions of changed water availability by the population through focus group discussions. From the measurements it was determined that canal seepage provides an important contribution to groundwater recharge. It was estimated that after concrete lining the annual groundwater recharge in the irrigated areas will be reduced by approximately 50%. This saves a substantial amount of water that can be used to extend the irrigation area so more people can benefit from the available irrigation water. However, in the currently irrigated areas lining will have negative impacts by lowering groundwater levels due to a reduction in seepage from canals. This seepage contributes to the recharge of shallow wells used by the population to obtain water for drinking and cooking. The perception of the population was that enough water remains for domestic use. Other changes, such as reduced yields from home gardens were considered to be more important. Despite these negative impacts the expected positive impacts in the extension area justify, from a social equity point of view, concrete lining as a measure to redistribute the available water over the Uda Walawe area.     

宁夏支渠结构现状及衬砌破坏成因

针对宁夏支渠衬砌运行中出现冻胀破坏严重现象，通过对灌区现有支渠的梯形断面、U形断面、弧底梯形断面、弧形坡角梯形断面和梯形混合断面（衬砌板＋砌石护脚）5种衬砌结构型式进行调查，阐述了各种衬砌结构的破坏状况、破坏原因和影响因素，着重从渠道结构、断面型式、流量、走向、挖填方、地下水位、施工工艺等方面进行分析，通过引用大量的调查资料分析说明各种衬砌结构的优缺点，提出结构优化的建议，这将对宁夏支渠的节水改造，防治渠道冻胀破坏，延长渠道使用寿命等方面起到积极的作用。