Social and ecological issues for private native forestry in north-eastern New South Wales,Australia

Forests in north-eastern New South Wales have often been the focus of controversy. The tension between production and preservation continues and hampers current negotiations for a code of practice for private native forestry. The structure of many private forests reflects past mismanagement, and silvicultural intervention would benefit both conservation and production objectives, but such intervention is rarely financially viable. This paper sets out the economic and ecological basis for private native forestry. Both the timber industry and nature-based tourism are major contributors to the local economy, and both rely in part on private native forests. Draft regulations currently under negotiation do not offer incentives for improved private forest management.

Vertebrate population responses to reduced-impact logging in a neotropical forest

Vertebrate population densities were quantified in lowland central Guyana using line-transect censuses at three forest sites subjected to reduced-impact logging (RIL), and three adjacent unlogged sites. We censused a range of forest vertebrate species including large canopy-dwelling and terrestrial birds, three primates, one rodent and one tortoise. Two 4 km transects at each site were repeatedly surveyed during the wet season of 2008 to derive population density estimates on the basis of a cumulative survey effort of 416 km. RIL had ended within 16 months, and sites had been subjected to a mean extraction rate of 3.9 m³ ha⁻¹, equivalent to only 1.1 trees ha⁻¹. Three of the 15 vertebrate species examined here exhibited significantly different abundances at forest RIL sites, two of which were negative. Large frugivores such as primates were less abundant in sites subject to RIL, whereas smaller frugivores, granivores, folivores and insectivores were more common in logged sites. We are unable to reliably distinguish between responses of different taxonomic groups, since robust abundance metrics could only be estimated for four mammal species. Despite this, species traits including dietary guild, body mass, home range size and vertical stratification of forest use are used to explain varying responses. Our findings suggest that responsible reduced-impact logging practices in neotropical forests can be considered as a relatively benign form of forest management that can coexist with the requirements of both local economies and biodiversity conservation. However, our study sites experienced comparably low extraction rates, and detrimental effects such as hunting were low. Our results therefore provide an opportunity to scrutinise the effects of best practice logging systems, though do not necessarily represent typical circumstances across tropical forests.     

Selective logging in public pine forests of the central Iberian Peninsula: Effects of the recovery process on ant assemblages

Pine forests on the northern plateau of the Iberian Peninsula have a long history of use, exploitation, and management. Current management practices consist of selective logging with relatively short periods of time between logging events. The main objective of this study is to detect changes in ant assemblages in the short time periods between selective logging activities. Ants were sampled at 44 sites considering three grouping categories of time periods after the last timber extraction: short (<4 years), medium (4-8 years) and long (>8 years). After selective logging the number of ant species increases as the forest recovers. A look at the differences between the assemblages when the analysis shifts from the species-specific level to functional groups showed differences between the short and long categories. This indicates that in certain circumstances the functional groups may be more informative of the functional restructuring of the ant assemblages in a disturbed habitat. Ant species from three functional groups display significant indicative values (Opportunist, Hot Climate Specialists and Subordinate Camponotini) in the medium- and long-time-after-logging categories: Messor capitatus (HCS) for medium-time category sites; and Aphaenogaster iberica (Op), Camponotus cruentatus (SC) and, Cataglyphis velox (HCS) for long-time category sites. No indicator species were found for the early stages of recovery. This information may also be of interest to managers because it reduces the number of data elements of the recovery status of these forests, and can be translated into monitoring protocols. The continued exploitation of these forests leads to an ant fauna that reflects this change. The results show that ant assemblages need at least 8 years to recover since only after that much time there is an emergence of Subordinate Camponotinae, a behaviorally dominant and low stress-tolerant functional group. This selective logging maintains the relative diversity and structure of ant assemblages.     

Co-occurring tree species show contrasting sensitivity to ENSO-related droughts in planted dipterocarp forests

This study explores the diversity in sensitivity to drought of moist tropical forest tree species. Yearly tree growth records collected over a ten-year period in two one-hectare 70-year-old damar agroforest plots in Sumatra are analysed. These agroforests are mixed tree plantations, dominated by Shorea javanica K. & V., a dipterocarp tree cultivated and tapped for its commercially valuable resin (damar). Many indigenous fruit tree species grow in these agroforests, as well as timber tree species originating from the nearby natural forest. During the census period the multi-species stands were subjected to three El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)-related droughts (1994, 1997 and 2002). At the tree community level, these droughts were associated with a marked decrease in radial stem growth. Multilevel modelling was used to explore the relative contribution of species, tree size and individual tree characteristics to the observed response to drought.All tree species appeared to be sensitive to drought but the amplitude of the response varied significantly across species. Predicted species mean decrease in stem radial growth rate on drought years (i.e. years with 6 months with less than 50 mm/month rainfall) ranged from less than 5% to more than 80%. Shared species were ranked consistently between plots indicating that the results were robust. Stem diameter significantly affected tree sensitivity to drought in two species only, but in opposite ways: in S. javanica, larger trees appeared to be less sensitive while the opposite was true for Lansium domesticum, an abundant fruit tree. Individual tree sensitivity to drought contributed significantly albeit to a small extent to the overall response to drought. This individual tree effect did not show any pattern of spatial correlation and hence could not be related to topographic features. It is likely to reflect the individual's unique history and genotype.     

Selective logging alters allometric relationships of five tropical tree species in seasonal semi-deciduous forests

In selectively logged forests,trees are more likely to expand their diameters(D)at the expense of height(H)growth,resulting in variations in H:D relationships.This study examines how selective logging affects the H:D allometric relationships of five common tree species and whether the effects vary with functional groups(shade-intolerant or shade tolerant)in seasonal semi-deciduous forests.Individuals of five species in a 3000 m^2(0.3 ha)plot were marked and heights and diameters recorded.Most of the species,with one exception,showed greater investment in diameter per increment of height compared to an unlogged forest,possibly because of the greater light available.This study shows the effects of selective logging on species populations as evidenced by increases in H:D ratios.Comparison of forest fragments with different degrees of human impact is important because it allows us to understand the differences in architectural characteristics caused by selective logging.     

Long-lasting effects of unplanned logging on the seed rain of mixed conifer-hardwood forests in southern South America

Understanding the effects of disturbance on seed rain is critical to predict changes in forest species composition and diversity.Logging effects on seed rain in a mixed conifer-hardwood forest complex in southern Brazil were evaluated.One year of seed rain data were collected from a large-scale observational experiment in logged and protected forests and quantity and average seed size weighted by species abundance(CWM) were compared between old-growth and logged stands 55 years after logging activities.Using these data,variations in frequency of functional groups of species in the seed rain were examined to see if they could be attributed to logging.Results show that the number of seeds per trap was highly right-skewed,ranging from 13 to 12,788 seeds per trap in one year.Seed rain was affected by logging history,with seed traps in old-growth plots receiving significantly less seeds than traps in logged plots.All species included mean seed size weighted by species abundance were significantly smaller in logged than in old-growth forests.This difference persisted after the exclusion of Arawcaria a large-seeded pioneer which was intensively logged,although the difference of seed size between the two forest classes was greatly reduced.Species abundance in the seed rain differed significantly from the established tree community,between logged and oldgrowth stands.The composition of the seed rain was much more variable than the composition of the established tree community and its points more scattered over the ordination space than the points corresponding to the protected forests.The number of collected seeds across different functional groups of species significantly differed between logged and old-growth plots.The seed rain of logged forests reflects their arrested succes sion as indicated by reduced abundance of functional groups such as pioneers,large seeded pioneers and A raucaria,as well as reduced functional diversity.S eed rain differences between logged and old-growth stands reflect the intensive logging of A.angustifolia.     

Investigating residual effects of selective logging on ant species assemblages in Sinharaja Forest Reserve,Sri Lanka

The residual effects of logging on forest fauna and flora have been well studied in other regions of the world, with many investigations finding that recovery of species richness and abundance can occur within one or two decades after the logging event. In this study, we use ant assemblages to compare logged (>30 years) and unlogged mixed dipterocarp forest in the Sinharaja Forest Reserve, a World Heritage Site in Sri Lanka. Species richness and abundance were higher in the logged forest than in the unlogged forest, but not significantly so. Species assemblages, on the other hand, were significantly different and were associated with different environmental variables in the logged and unlogged forest. The findings from this study corroborate other studies that have shown that species composition in logged forest does not appear to return to unlogged forest composition, even after three to six decades have passed. Since this study was not a before-and-after comparison, it is difficult to confirm whether the differences arise from the residual effects of logging or from the general patchiness of species distribution in tropical forest. However, the cumulative results do suggest that there is a residual effect of logging on ant species composition in this forest, even after more than 30 years of regeneration.     

River red gum and white cypress forests in south-western New South Wales, Australia: Ecological history and implications for conservation of grassy woodlands

On the western rivers and plains of southern New South Wales, relatively small areas of forests remain in a semi-natural condition and conservation reserves are lacking. Severe drought stress in recent decades after two centuries of European management has raised issues about how best to manage these forests and, if necessary, restore them. The region was explored between 1817 and 1836. Settlers, foresters and ecologists described changes as Aboriginal culture was displaced, domestic stock, feral animals and exotic plants were introduced, rabbits were controlled, rivers were regulated, and grazing was reduced. The Aboriginal ecosystems were different to the new red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) and white cypress (Callitris columellaris) forests which lack resilience. Trees, saplings, fallen timber, shrubs and parasitic plants have accumulated in recently ‘undisturbed’ sites and these features are now promoted as benchmarks for conservation. However, human activity including watering, thinning, firewood collection, grazing and/or burning may aid restoration whereas non-intervention may allow continuing degradation. This historical ecology and recent palaeoecology provide insights to conserving grassy woodlands globally.     

Community attitudes towards private native forestry in New South Wales

An on-line survey during August–September 2006 examined community attitudes toward private native forestry. Views expressed by the 156 respondents confirmed prior hypotheses that attitudes would correlate with associations (e.g. professionals in favour of incentives, farmers in favour of freedom to manage, conservationists in favour of regulations), and with interest (biodiversity enthusiasts in favour of regulations, producers in favour of incentives), but refuted the prior hypotheses that urban dwellers would be more likely to favour regulations. Respondents appear to reflect different constituencies with divergent views without a shared understanding of the condition and dynamics of private native forests in NSW. This indicates the need for more extension and public education, particularly since forests continue to be an election issue. The survey did not gauge support for private native forestry, but helps to untangle the views from the constituencies promoting them. Regulatory approaches received most support from respondents affiliated with an environmental group, with a national concern for biodiversity, who fear that private native forests are in poor condition and will degrade further. Advocates for more landholder freedom tend to be landholders who believe that private native forests are in better condition than comparable State Forests, and who are optimistic about the future for private native forests. Advocates for incentives tend to be urban dwellers with a production focus and professional affiliation.     

Forestry in the South Wales Coalfield

Describes briefly the history and physical conditions of thecoalfield, the silvicultural and sociological problems of itsforests and their future management in relation to markets.     

Determinism versus chance in canopy gap herbaceous species assemblages in temperate Abies-Betula forests

It is not known if the species composition of herbaceous plant assemblies within tree-fall gaps is determined stochastically or whether it follows species-specific and environmentally-determined patterns. We applied three methods, fitting species abundance distribution models, comparing community similarities, and testing species-environmental variable association, to evaluate the relative importance of chance and deterministic rules in controlling herbaceous composition within canopy gaps in the Abies-Betula forests of Mt. Taibai, Central China. Herbaceous species abundance within canopy gaps was well fit by a neutral model, showing that relative abundance was qualitatively consistent with stochastic processes. Although species composition in gaps significantly differed from closed canopy sites (ANOSIM, R = 0.509, p = 0.001), there were no significant differences among gaps of different age groups (ANOSIM, R = 0.035, p = 0.191) or gaps of different size groups (ANOSIM, R = 0.089, p = 0.057). Similarly, gaps of similar age and size did not show significantly higher similarity (χ² = 2.30, df = 3, p = 0.513) in species composition than gaps of distinct age or size. Moreover, there were only eight species, including two light-demanding species, confined to larger gaps among the 69 species, and only an additional seven species found more commonly in larger gaps, whereas most herbaceous species were gap size generalists. Canonical correspondence analysis and random permutation tests suggested that only 27% of species with abundance ?5 were associated with environmental variables in gaps. In summary, the species composition in gaps was not constrained significantly by gap traits; rather species were distributed stochastically, likely through by random dispersal and recruitment limitation of species from the surrounding available species pool. Measures that introduce gap disturbance, such as selective harvesting, are still recommended when the maintenance of total biodiversity in forests is a concern.     

澳大利亚新南威尔士州台地上桉树的衰落

桉属植物是澳大利亚景观中的主要的乡土植物类群。在欧洲人定居澳大利亚以后,新南威尔士州台地的桉树急剧减少,桉树更新停滞,景观生态系统很难恢复到原初状态。本文介绍了桉树和乡土灌木减少的历史背景,分析了在这一地区幼苗更新减少的原因主要是由于开垦、放牧、火烧、外来物种竞争、枯萎、昆虫和干旱等,总结了桉树更新的可能条件,如幼苗存活的合适条件、充足的种子供应、避免捕食、适当的萌发条件、无放牧环境、机械处理、杂草控制、火烧系统和疾病控制等,借以建议在该地区应怎样保护和促进桉树的更新。参26。     

Effects of harvest management practices on forest biomass and soil carbon in eucalypt forests in New South Wales,Australia: Simulations with the forest succession model LINKAGES

Understanding long-term changes in forest ecosystem carbon stocks under forest management practices such as timber harvesting is important for assessing the contribution of forests to the global carbon cycle. Harvesting effects are complicated by the amount, type, and condition of residue left on-site, the decomposition rate of this residue, the incorporation of residue into soil organic matter and the rate of new detritus input to the forest floor from regrowing vegetation. In an attempt to address these complexities, the forest succession model LINKAGES was used to assess the production of aboveground biomass, detritus, and soil carbon stocks in native Eucalyptus forests as influenced by five harvest management practices in New South Wales, Australia. The original decomposition sub-routines of LINKAGES were modified by adding components of the Rothamsted (RothC) soil organic matter turnover model. Simulation results using the new model were compared to data from long-term forest inventory plots. Good agreement was observed between simulated and measured above-ground biomass, but mixed results were obtained for basal area. Harvesting operations examined included removing trees for quota sawlogs (QSL, DBH >80 cm), integrated sawlogs (ISL, DBH >20 cm) and whole-tree harvesting in integrated sawlogs (WTH). We also examined the impact of different cutting cycles (20, 50 or 80 years) and intensities (removing 20, 50 or 80 m³). Generally medium and high intensities of shorter cutting cycles in sawlog harvesting systems produced considerably higher soil carbon values compared to no harvesting. On average, soil carbon was 2–9% lower in whole-tree harvest simulations whereas in sawlog harvest simulations soil carbon was 5–17% higher than in no harvesting.     

Analysing inter-rotational productivity and nutrition in a New South Wales radiata pine plantation

Comparisons of plantation scale productive capacity and productivity were undertaken for first and second rotations of Pinus radiata plantation on clay soils in NSW, Australia where rotation length was about 30 years. Over a rotation, where there were no significant additions of nutrients, there were small declines in productivity from the first to the second rotation while productivity increased in the third rotation usually due to changes in management. On sites treated with significant quantities of phosphate fertilizer (50 kg P ha^?1) in the second rotation, there were significant increases in the productivity of the second rotation with a residual effect into the third rotation. The early growth in the second rotation may be higher than the first rotation but the growth changes with age. Rotation length productivity appears to be related to the magnitude of soil nutrient pools. Nutrients such as calcium, potassium and boron appear to be affecting long term growth even though the foliage levels are much higher than normally considered limiting for growth. Most of the differences in productivity between rotations appear to be related to soil nutrients or management changes while potential genetic gains as estimated from experimental trials, are difficult to identify.     

Private native forestry in new landscapes: challenges and opportunities in New South Wales

Understanding the changes occurring within the forestry sector is complicated by socio-economic and demographic changes within rural communities - sometimes in areas where commercial forestry has a long tradition. These changes in some rural communities, particularly coastal New South Wales, appear significant for forestry because land ownership and management are increasingly disconnected from the traditional agricultural land use. There is an increasing population of landowners in ‘lifestyle’ landscapes who do not appear primarily driven by maximising the profitability of farming. The shift from ‘production’ to ‘lifestyle’ landscapes also reflects a transition in community expectations for forestry - a profound change that is likely to require quite different approaches to management. Landholders may be more likely to be interested in forestry with multiple values, including both timber products and environmental services. Furthermore, well-managed native forests that are integrated into individual properties and wider landscapes, may increase the market value of the property, representing a prudent business investment. This paper presents a method for analysing the relationship between rural land values and the estimated agricultural value of typical farms in a number of localities in New South Wales, as a means of interpreting the underlying social values of landholders. It is argued that such analysis can be helpful in identifying changes in community values as a signal that approaches to private native forestry may also need to change to accommodate the aspirations of ‘lifestyle’ landholders, who may value the aesthetics of native forests more highly than timber production.     

Assessing vulnerability of forests to climate change in South Korea

This study demonstrated a framework to assess vulnerability of forests to climate change. We focused on how alterations of temperature and precipitation might affect forest type distributions and carbon-related functions. In particular, our framework considered three sectors of forest type distribution, net primary production, and soil carbon storage. Future projections were derived from mechanistic models for South Korean forests under the A1B scenarios of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Forest type distributions were simulated by the Hydrological and thermal analogy group model, while the MAPSS and CENTURY1 models estimated forest carbon flux/storage. We quantified normalized vulnerability indices for each sector. Our results indicate that the overall vulnerability of forest type distribution is greater in the west central regions and southeastern inlands. The vulnerabilities of carbon flux/storage show that net primary production of South Korean forests is relatively less susceptible to climate change, but a highly vulnerable area of soil carbon storage mainly spreads from the west central to the south east region. The spatio-temporal vulnerability map with a synoptic overview from this study might be useful for policy makers in preparing adaptive measures and identifying management priorities.     

Private native forest policies in New South Wales,Queensland, Victoria and Tasmania

Private native forests in Australia perform a dual production and conservation role, providing an important source of timber, and complementing formal conservation reserves. A comparison of policies for private native forests in New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and Tasmania illustrates the scope for timber harvesting, the provision for environmental values, and initiatives for responsible and sustainable forest management. The sustainable management of Australia’s forests requires initiatives by both government and landowners to accommodate changes in community attitudes, new management strategies, integrated catchment management principles and both commercial and non-commercial opportunities for forest use. Of all of the Australian states, New South Wales has the most restrictive laws in terms of forest management and harvesting. Queensland and Victorian legislation have a more commercial focus, while Tasmania has a balance of both environmental and commercial objectives. The duty of care for private native forests is a responsibility that falls to the landholder, and while this should be enforced by legislation, the private provision of community benefits requires both recognition and reward. The presence or absence of incentives potentially determines the effectiveness of forest codes of practice.     

Applying ecological knowledge to decisions about seed tree retention in selective logging in tropical forests

In production forests in the moist tropics, trees are selected for felling or retention primarily by species and size. Tree regeneration requirements and forest stand responses to harvesting are often ignored, and consequently, the regeneration of the residual forest is not ensured. We developed and tested an alternative approach to tree selection, where seed trees were retained as a proportion of harvestable trees, with the proportion defined as a function of species’ ecological attributes and local abundance (100 ha), in contrast to the conventional approach which retained 10% of harvestable trees, uniformly across commercial species at the compartmental scale (1000 ha). The study was conducted in Democracia Project, a forest management operation in Amazonas, Brazil. The conventional approach failed to retain any seed trees at the 100 ha block scale for 7 of 37 commercial species, whereas the alternative approach retained a minimum number of seed trees per 100 ha block for all commercial species. The conventional approach resulted in the retention of relatively high proportions of potential seed trees for common species (e.g., 22% for Eperua oleifera and 36% for Maquira sclerophila) that are shade bearers and recruit readily at the site; alternately, for species with constraints to regeneration, it retained relatively low proportions (e.g., 2% for Dinizia excelsa and Hymenolobium nitidum). The alternative approach effectively retained lower proportions of common species (e.g., 10% for E. oleifera and 13% for M. sclerophila) and relatively high proportions of species with regeneration constraints (e.g., 20% for D. excelsa and 16% for H. nitidum). Our study demonstrates that it is feasible to implement at an operational scale, species-specific retention rules that take into account local abundance when inventory data are digitised and spatially explicit. Monitoring regeneration in the residual stands over time will provide the evidence to assess the ecological benefits of the adoption of our alternative approach.