Water and nitrate movement in drip-irrigated onion under fertigation and irrigation treatments

Frequent fertigation of crops is often advocated in the technical and popular literature, but there is limited evidence of the benefits of high-frequency fertigation. Field experiments were conducted on an Indo-American Hybrid var., Creole Red, of onion crop during three winter seasons of 1999–2000 through 2001–2002 in coarse-textured soil of Delhi under the semi-arid region of India. Three irrigation levels of 60, 80 and 100% of the crop evapotranspiration (ET) and four fertigation frequencies of daily, alternate day, weekly and monthly comprised the fertigation treatment. Analysis of soil samples indicated considerable influence of fertigation frequency on NO₃-N distribution in soil profile. NO₃-N in lower soil profiles (30.0–60.0 cm soil depth) was marginally affected in daily, alternate day and weekly fertigation. However, fluctuations of NO₃-N content in 0.0–15.0, 15.0–30.0, 30.0–45.0 and 45.0–60.0 cm soil depth was more in monthly fertigation frequency. The level of soil NO₃-N after the crop season shows that more NO₃-N leached through the soil profile in monthly fertigation frequency. Amounts of irrigation water applied in three irrigation treatments proved to be too small to cause significant differences in the content of NO₃-N leached beyond rooting depth of onion. Yield of onion was not significantly affected in daily, alternate day and weekly fertigation, though there was a trend of lower yields with monthly fertigation. The highest yield was recorded in daily fertigation (28.74 t ha⁻¹) followed by alternate day fertigation (28.4 t ha⁻¹). Lowest yield was recorded in monthly fertigation frequency (21.4 t ha⁻¹). Application of 56.4 cm irrigation water and 3.4 kg ha⁻¹ urea per fertigation (daily) resulted in highest yield of onion with less leaching of NO₃-N.     

Profits and nitrate leaching under irrigated corn: a simulation

The economic impact of reducing the amount of nitrate leached out of the root zone under irrigation in the arid West was examined. The economic incentives of irrigation management were evaluated under the assumptions of both profit-maximizing and utility-maximizing (in reducing cost and effort expended in irrigation) decision-making criteria. The results indicate that there is a coincidence of interests of the farmer and the environment provided some leaching occurred. If no leaching is allowed, profit decreases markedly. Both behaviors result in less nitrate leaching than less profitable or less utility-producing irrigating practices.     

Water and nitrate distributions as affected by layered-textural soil and buried dripline depth under subsurface drip fertigation

Laboratory experiments were conducted to investigate the distributions of water and nitrate from a buried dripline discharging an ammonium nitrate solution in uniform and layered-textural soils. Two layered soils, a sandy-over-loam soil (SL) and a loam-sandy-loam soil (LSL), and two uniform soils of sandy (S) and loam (L) were tested. The experimental results demonstrated that dripline depth and layered-textural soil greatly affected water and nitrate distribution. Wetted depth increased with dripline depth and initial soil water content for both uniform and layered soils. The distribution pattern of water in the layered soils was controlled by the layering sequence and the dripline position relative to the interface between two soil layers. Water accumulation occurred in the fine-textural layer of soil for the layered soils. For the sandy-over-loam soil (SL), positioning the dripline below the interface led to much water (89%) moving to the sublayer of loam soil than positioning the dripline above the interface (73%). For the loam-sandy-loam soil (LSL), positioning the dripline in the top layer of loam soil resulted in 77% of water applied distributed in the top layer, while positioning the dripline in the bottom layer of loam soil resulted in 93% of water applied distributed in the bottom layer. Measurements of nitrate distribution showed that nitrate concentration in the proximity of the dripline and of the water accumulation zone approximated the input concentration while nitrate accumulated at the boundary of the wetted volume for both uniform and layered soils tested. The results from this study suggest that the dripline depth should be carefully selected in the design of subsurface drip irrigation systems for layered soils to obtain a target distribution of water and nitrate.     

Seasonal variations in nitrate leaching in structured clay soils under mixed land use

Nitrate leaching was studied for 2 years in a structured clay soil (Evesham series) under grass, winter wheat and spring barley at N fertilizer inputs of 135–144 kg ha^?1 year^?1. Measurements of soil water to 2 m depth by neutron probe showed that the year could be divided into well defined periods of deficit, separated by a period when the soil was at its winter mean water content. Soil water potentials showed very little gradient for water flow below 1 m, and a persistent convergent zero flux plane at 40–60 cm depth during the autumn wetting-up period (September—November).Nitrate concentration in the drainage increased with discharge rates up to 3–6 mm day^?1. Mean nitrate concentrations were generally highest during intermittent drain-flow in the autumn. Of the total N leached over the 2 years, 23 to 28% (5–7 kg N ha^?1) was lost during this period. The remainder (13–25 kg N ha^?1) was leached during winter and virtually no N was lost in the following spring-early summer. This seasonal pattern of N leaching was interpreted in terms of intermittent flow during rainfall of nitrate-rich water from surface layers, which bypassed the relatively dry soil matrix at 40–60 cm, but was intercepted by natural and artificial drainage channels. Implications for the prediction of N leaching loss based on the concept of excess winter rainfall are discussed. When predicting the start of N leaching in structured clay soils, the soil water status should be assessed from measurements of water potential rather than water content.     

Estimating deep drainage and nitrate leaching from the root zone under sugarcane using APSIM-SWIM

The Burdekin Delta (BD) is located on the dry-tropical coastal strip in North Queensland, Australia. It is one of Australia's premier sugar producing districts with approximately 40,000 ha of land under sugarcane. Because the BD borders the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA), industry, community, regulatory, and environmental organisations are interested in ascertaining the magnitude of deep drainage and nitrate leaching from the root zone and potential implications for the GBRWHA.Direct measurement of deep drainage and nitrate leaching is difficult, and modelling is likely to play an ever-increasing role in guiding experimental work and decision-making. Here, we describe the collection of drainage and nitrate-leaching related data collected over two cropping seasons at a specific field site within the BD and its use in the calibration and application of a drainage and nitrate-leaching model created within the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM) modelling framework with constituent crop-growth, soil–water, and nitrogen transformation modules (Sugar, APSIM-SWIM, Soiln2).Model application indicated that the simulated amount of drainage and nitrate leached over a cropping season compared favourably to that derived from inferred drainage and observed soil–water nitrate concentrations. Subsequent investigation of fertilizer management options using the model identified the timing and amount of both irrigation and fertilizer application as key parameters over which management control might be exploited to minimise deep drainage and flux of nitrate to groundwater.     

Irrigation management for optimizing crop production and nitrate leaching on grassland

Six supplementary irrigation management options for grazed grassland were defined and their effects on both agricultural production and nitrate leaching to the groundwater were studied. Data were available from the De Marke experimental farm for sustainable dairy farming. The calibrated and validated simulation models SWACROP and ANIMO were used to calculate the effects of the different irrigation management options on crop transpiration, and on water fluxes and nitrate concentrations for three fields of the farm. Comparisons with the common practice at the farm were made. A change in application volume from 25 to 15 mm per irrigation resulted in higher irrigation efficiencies and lower annual water use for supplementary irrigation with only small changes in the ratio of actual and potential transpiration (T_a/T_p). The advisory system ‘irrigation planner’ generally also resulted in high irrigation efficiencies combined with a reduction of water use and a small effect on the transpiration ratio. The different irrigation strategies had no significant effect on nitrate concentrations in the leachate from two dry fields studied. For the relatively wet field in this study an increase of irrigation water use would improve agricultural production conditions and reduce nitrate concentrations at 1 m depth. For the evaluation of environmental effects of irrigation management options it is advised to assess the actual nitrate concentrations and not only the water fluxes, which potentially cause solute leaching.     

Simulation of bromide and nitrate leaching under heavy rainfall and high-intensity irrigation rates in North China Plain

Heavy rainfall and irrigations during the summer months in the North China Plain may cause losses of nitrogen because of nitrate leaching. The objectives of this study were to characterize the leaching of accumulated N in soil profiles, and to determine the usefulness of Br⁻ as a tracer of surface-applied N fertilizer under heavy rainfall and high irrigation rates. A field experiment with bare plots was conducted near Beijing from 5 July to 6 September 2006. The experiment included three treatments: no irrigation (rainfall only, I0), farmers’ practice irrigation (rainfall plus 100 mm irrigation, I100) and high-intensity irrigation (rainfall plus 500 mm irrigation, I500), with three replicates. Transport of surface-applied Br⁻ and NO₃⁻ (assuming no initial NO₃⁻ in the soil profile) and accumulated NO₃⁻ in soil profiles were all simulated with the HYDRUS-1D model. The model simulation results showed that Br⁻ leached through the soil profile faster than NO₃⁻. When Br⁻ was used as a tracer for surface-applied N fertilizer to estimate nitrate leaching losses, the amount of N leaching may be overestimated by about 10%. Water drainage and nitrate leaching were dramatically increased as the irrigation rate was increased. The amounts of N leaching out of the 2.1-m soil profile under I0, I100 and I500 treatments were 195 ± 84, 392 ± 136 and 612 ± 211 kg N ha⁻¹, equivalent to about 20 ± 5%, 40 ± 6% and 62 ± 7% of the accumulative N in the soil profile, respectively. N was leached more deeply as the irrigation rate increased. The larger amount of initial accumulated N was in soil profile, the higher percentage of N leaching was. N leaching was also simulated in summer under different weather conditions from 1986 to 2006. The results indicated that nitrate leaching in rainy years were significantly higher than those in dry and normal years. Increasing the irrigation times and decreasing the single irrigation rate after fertilizer application should be recommended.     

Water and nitrogen distribution as affected by fertigation of ammonium nitrate from a point source

The simultaneous distribution of water, nitrate, and ammonium from a point source discharging an ammonium nitrate (NH₄NO₃) solution was measured using the gravimetric method. A 15° wedge-shaped plexiglass container was used to represent one twenty-fourth of the complete cylinder. The variables affecting water and solute distributions, including application rate, input concentration, and applied volume were investigated and their effects are presented on a basis of a completely cylindrical system. In the experiments, the apparent cylindrical application rate was varied from 0.6 to 7.8 l/h, the apparent cylindrical applied volume from 6 to 15 l, and the input concentration from 100 to 700 mg/l. Monitoring of the water movement revealed that the ultimate saturated entry radius on the surface increased with the application rate. Surface wetted radius and vertical wetted depth were proportional to the applied water volume with power values of about 0.3 and 0.5, respectively. The shape of the wetted soil zone was clearly related to the application rate and the applied volume. An increase in rate resulted in an increase in the wetted horizontal area and a decrease in the wetted soil depth, while an increase in volume resulted in an increase in wetted horizontal and vertical areas. A uniform distribution of nitrate concentration in the soil was found 15 cm around the point source for a given input concentration. For any input concentration, the accumulation of nitrate at the boundary of the wetted volume was observed. The nitrate concentration in the soil was primarily affected by the input concentration; there was an increased nitrate concentration with a higher input concentration. The results of ammonium distribution measurements indicated that there existed an extremely high ammonium concentration in the proximity of the point source (about 2.5-7.5 cm from the source). An increased input concentration produced a higher ammonium concentration around the point source. Results also demonstrated that the influence of fertigation on the ammonium distribution was restricted in a small volume, about 10 cm around the point source. Beyond this range, input concentration, application rate, and total applied volume had insignificant effects on ammonium distribution. The information obtained from this research is useful in the design, operation, and management of a fertigation system with drip irrigation.     

Simulation of nitrate leaching under irrigated maize on sandy soil in desert oasis in Inner Mongolia, China

Water scarcity and nitrate contamination in groundwater are serious problems in desert oases in Northwest China. Field and ¹⁵N microplot experiments with traditional and improved water and nitrogen management were conducted in a desert oasis in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Water movement, nitrogen transport and crop growth were simulated by the soil-plant system with water and solute transport model (SPWS). The model simulation results, including the water content and nitrate concentration in the soil profile, leaf area index, dry matter weight, crop N uptake and grain yield, were all in good agreement with the field measurements. The water and nitrogen use efficiency of the improved treatment were better than those of the traditional treatment. The water and nitrogen use efficiency under the traditional treatment were 2.0 kg m⁻³ and 21 kg kg⁻¹, respectively, while under the improved treatment, they were 2.2 kg m⁻³ and 26 kg kg⁻¹, respectively. Water drainage accounted for 24-35% of total water input (rainfall and irrigation) for the two treatments. Nitrogen loss by ammonia volatilization and denitrification was less than 5% of the total N input (including the N comes from irrigation). However, 32-61% of total nitrogen input was lost through nitrate leaching, which agreed with the ¹⁵N isotopic result. It is impetrative to improve the water and nitrogen management in the desert oasis.     

Simulation of nitrate leaching under potato crops in a Mediterranean area. Influence of frost prevention irrigation on nitrogen transport

The Sa Pobla area (Majorca Island, Spain) heavily depends on the use of groundwater resources for irrigation and urban water supply and is characterised by the presence of intensive potato farming activities. The Plioquaternary aquifer is unconfined and contains high levels of nitrate concentrations. To analyse the risk of contamination to the aquifer arising from agricultural practices, the amount of water and nitrogen leached below the root zone was simulated by the GLEAMS code. Data for model calibration and validation were obtained from field experiments on six potato crops for the years 2004-2007.When air temperatures drop below 1 °C irrigation water is applied to prevent crops from frost damage. During times of anomalously low air temperatures, the risk of nitrate leaching is increased by as much as 318% from frost prevention irrigation under normal local conditions.The GLEAMS simulation model was successfully calibrated for Sa Pobla conditions under potato cropping as shown by RMSE values for the water transport module of 0.19, 0.14 and 0.13 for the calibration period and 0.20, 0.25 and 0.15 for the validation period at depths of 0.3, 0.6, and 0.9 m respectively; and for the chemical transport module the R² value was 0.82 for the calibration period and 0.60 for the validation period. Consequently, for Sa Pobla conditions, GLEAMS can be used to assess the effectiveness of different agricultural management practices to reduce nitrate leaching. It was concluded that additional irrigation water applied for frost prevention plays a very important role in nitrate leaching below the root zone, which enhances the nitrogen loading to the aquifer.     

Simulation of 1D surface and 2D subsurface water flow and nitrate transport in alternate and conventional furrow fertigation

Increasing water and fertilizer productivity stands as a relevant challenge for sustainable agriculture. Alternate furrow irrigation and surface fertigation have long been identified as water and fertilizer conserving techniques in agricultural lands. The objective of this study was to simulate water flow and fertilizer transport in the soil surface and in the soil profile for variable and fixed alternate furrow fertigation and for conventional furrow fertigation. An experimental data set was used to calibrate and validate two simulation models: a 1D surface fertigation model and the 2D subsurface water and solute transfer model HYDRUS-2D. Both models were combined to simulate the fertigation process in furrow irrigation. The surface fertigation model could successfully simulate runoff discharge and nitrate concentration for all irrigation treatments. Six soil hydraulic and solute transport parameters were inversely estimated using the Levenberg–Marquardt optimization technique. The outcome of this process calibrated HYDRUS-2D to the observed field data. HYDRUS-2D was run in validation mode, simulating water content and nitrate concentration in the soil profiles of the wet furrows, ridges and dry furrows at the upstream, middle and downstream parts of the experimental field. This model produced adequate agreement between measured and predicted soil water content and nitrate concentration. The combined model stands as a valuable tool to better design and manage fertigation in alternate and conventional furrow irrigation.     

Evaluating an environmental indicator: Case study of MERLIN, a method for assessing the risk of nitrate leaching

The need to achieve acceptable levels of nitrate in drinking water has led to the development of simulation models and indicators for assessing the environmental performance of agricultural practices. These indicators are necessarily based on simplifications in order to meet the practical constraints of feasibility, but they should nevertheless meet scientific standards, especially as regards their validation. The overall objective of this paper is to evaluate the MERLIN indicator and sub-indicators, an assessment method developed by French agricultural advisors. This tool estimates and classes the risks of water pollution by nitrates, integrating farmer practices both during crop cultivation and in between two successive crops, as well as soil sensitivity to leaching. The evaluation was performed according to the methodological framework proposed by Bockstaller and Girardin [Bockstaller, C., Girardin, P., 2003. How to validate environmental indicators? Agric. Syst. 76, 639–653]: design, output and end-use validation. Design validation involved submission of the method to experts and checking the sub-indicators against literature. Output validation was carried out by comparing real values to indicator outputs. End-use validation was based on information gathered by users. In particular we compared output data from the original method with that of users that had adapted the method to their situation, in order to assess the consequences of these changes. The first step confirmed that the assumptions of MERLIN and its sub-indicators are scientifically sound. However, the weighting of the different sub-indicators raised questions. The second output validation step gave acceptable results for the EQUIF sub-indicator but the MERLIN test highlighted the need for additional experimental data before validation. This approach also showed that improvements in the precision of parameters do not necessarily increase the accuracy of the classification. The last step confirmed that the indicator is considered useful by decision-makers but also reveals that in some cases users adapt parameter values to their situation. This has lead to the production of a user guide which defines the method more clearly to avoid numerous adaptations by users.     

新疆滴灌施肥棉花生长和产量的水肥耦合效应

在新疆石河子棉花种植区,研究了滴灌施肥棉花生长和产量的水肥耦合效应.试验设置3个灌水水平和5个NPK施肥水平.结果表明,滴灌施肥条件下,灌水量对株高、有效铃数、百铃质量、籽棉产量、水分利用效率和灌溉水利用效率影响均在0.05水平下具有统计学意义,对和叶面积指数的影响在0.01水平下具有统计学意义,其变化随着灌水量的增加而增加;施肥对株高、叶面积指数、有效铃数、百铃质量和籽棉产量影响在0.01水平下具有统计学意义,水肥交互作用对单株有效铃数、百铃质量和籽棉产量影响在0.01水平下具有统计学意义.施肥过高对作物生长有一定的抑制作用.灌水量为60%ET_c,施肥量为300 kg/hm²∶120 kg/hm²∶60 kg/hm²(ω_N∶ω_P2O5∶ω_K2O)时氮、磷、钾的利用效率均最高,灌水量为100%ET_c,施肥量为150 kg/hm²:60 kg/hm²∶30 kg/hm²(ω_N∶ω_P2O5∶ω_K2O)时氮、磷、钾养分回收率最高.从产量、水分利用效率和肥料偏生产力等角度综合考虑,灌水量100%ET_c、300 kg/hm²∶120 kg/hm²∶60 kg/hm²(ω_N∶ω_P2O5∶ω_K2O)为最佳滴灌施肥策略.     

土壤空间变异对水氮淋失和产量影响的模拟研究

基于CERES-Maize模型,研究了土壤空间变异和水文年型对半干旱地区土壤水氮淋失和玉米产量的影响.结果表明,土壤空间变异对作物产量和土壤水氮淋失的影响程度与降雨密切相关.丰水年水氮淋失量显著高于平水年和枯水年.降雨对作物产量和农田尺度水氮淋失的空间变异有明显影响,并能在一定程度上减弱土壤空间变异对产量和农田尺度水氮淋失的影响.随着土壤空间变异程度的增大,产量降低,产量的空间变异程度增加.水分渗漏和氮淋失量随土壤空间变异的增加呈增加趋势.当土壤黏粒和粉粒含量变异系数CV≥0.2时,在水氮管理中考虑土壤空间变异有利于提高作物产量,减轻水氮淋失.     

Assessment of spatial variability in nitrate leaching to reduce nitrogen fertilizers impact on water quality

Nitrogen leaching has caused a growing societal concern over N fertilizer impact on water quality. One way to decrease nitrogen loss through leaching is to adjust fertilizer inputs to site-specific conditions. This study was conducted to investigate spatial variability of NO₃ leaching parameters on a 5 ha commercial wheat field (Typic Ustifluent) located 25 km north of Tokat, Turkey, for the purpose of dividing the field into small cells in which application rates can be kept constant. NO₃ leaching parameters were calculated using the monthly analysis version of computer program NLEAP (nitrate leach and economic analysis package) on a regular grid spacing of 25 m, and semi-variogram for each parameter was calculated using the computer program GEAOES. The values for parameter NL (nitrate leached) were between 24.64 (low) and 77.28 kg ha⁻¹ (medium), for NAL (nitrate available for leaching) 42.46 (low) and 274.40 kg ha⁻¹ (high), and for MRI (movement risk index) 0.28 (low) and 0.35 (medium). Values for parameter ALRP (annual leaching risk potential) varied from high (index=4) to moderate (index=3). A moderately significant correlation (r=0.54, P<0.01) was found between measured and model-estimated values for the parameter NAL, indicating that the NLEAP model adequately simulated the NO₃ leaching in the study area. Values for range were 360 m for NAL, 350 m for NL and 180 m for MRI, and nugget effect was 0.72 for MRI, 0.45 for NAL and 0.25 for NL, and mean correlation distances (MCD) were 145 m for NAL and 61 m for NL. Although, the spatial patterns for the parameters NAL and NL were similar, the upper cell limit for parameter NAL was higher than two times that of parameter NL, suggesting that calculation of input for continuous control of nitrogen application rate in a variable rate nitrogen fertilizer application program be based on the spatial pattern of NL but not on that of NAL.     

Policy incentives for reducing nitrate leaching from intensive agriculture in desert oases of Alxa, Inner Mongolia, China

Excessive irrigation and nitrogen applications result in substantial nitrate leaching into groundwater in intensively cropped oases in desert areas of Alxa, Inner Mongolia. An integrated modelling approach was developed and applied to compare policy incentives to reduce nitrate leaching. The integrated model consists of a process-based biophysical model, a meta-model, a farm economic model and an assessment of policy incentives. The modelling results show that there are “win-win” opportunities for improving farm profitability and reducing nitrate leaching. We found that 4471 Yuan ha⁻¹ of farm gross margin could be obtained with a reduction in nitrate leaching of 373 kg ha⁻¹. Farmers’ lack of knowledge about water and nitrogen in soil, and on crop requirements for water and nitrogen could explain the differences, so that agricultural extension is an appropriate policy incentive for this area. When the economic optimum is obtained reductions in nitrate leaching are not achievable without profit penalties and there is a “trade-off” relationship between farm profitability and groundwater quality protection. The combination of low elasticity of nitrate leaching and large elasticity of farm gross margin against water price increases results in very high costs for reducing nitrate leaching (105.6 Yuan kg⁻¹). It is suggested that if the water price increases were coupled with subsidies for adopting nitrate leaching mitigation practices, environmental gains could come at a lower cost.     

Impact of fertilisation practices on nitrogen leaching under irrigation

Field experiments were carried out over a 2-year period on a loamy soil plot under corn in Montpellier (south-east France). The effectiveness of improved irrigation practices in reducing the adverse impact of irrigation on the environment was assessed. Different irrigation and fertiliser treatments were applied to identify the best irrigation and fertilisation strategy for each technique (furrow and sprinkler) to ensure both good yields and lower NO₃^- leaching. No significant differences in corn yield and NO₃^- leaching were found for the climatic scenario of 1999 between sprinkler and furrow irrigation during the irrigation season. Following the rainy events occurring after plant maturity (and the irrigation season), differences in N leaching were observed between the treatments. The study shows that both the fertiliser method, consisting of applying a fertiliser just before ridging the furrows, and the two-dimensional (2D) infiltration process, greatly influence the N distribution in the soil. N distribution seems to have a beneficial impact on both yield and N leaching under heavy irrigation rates during the cropping season. But, under rainy events (particularly those occurring after harvesting), the N, stored in the upper part of the ridge and not previously taken up by plants, can be released into the deeper soil layers in a furrow-irrigated plot. In contrast, the 1D infiltration process occurring during sprinkler irrigation events affects the entire soil surface in the same way. As a result the same irrigation rate would probably increase N leaching under sprinkler irrigation to a greater extent than under furrow-irrigation during an irrigation period. In order to assess the robustness of these interpretations derived from soil N-profile analysis, a modelling approach was used to test the irrigation and fertilisation strategies under heavy irrigation rates such as those occurring at the downstream part of closed-end furrows. The RAIEOPT and STICS models were used to simulate water application depths, crop yield and NO₃^- leaching on three measurement sites located along the central furrow of each treatment. The use of a 2D water- and solute-transport model such as HYDRUS-2D enabled us to strengthen the conclusions derived from the observations made on the N distribution under a cross-section of furrow. This model helped to illustrate the risk of over-estimation of N leaching when using a simplified 1D solute-transport model such as STICS.     

Newly-simplified method for hydrauli design of micro-irrigation laterals based on emission uniformity

An analytical approach was developed to design a single uniformly sloping lateral in the micro-irrigation systems.Emission uniformity was used as the water application uniformity criterion.Energy relations based on the energy-gradient-line approach were revamped to account for the spatial variance of emitter outflow and the emitter connections local energy losses.Four pressure head grade line profiles were distinguished:uphill,horizontal,gentle downhill and steep downhill.Analytical expressions of emission uniformity by hydraulic variation for each pressure profile were developed based on the design variables:length and diameter of lateral,emitter spacing,emitter flow equation parameters,equivalent length characterizing local losses and ground slope.The design conditions for selecting emitter type,the number of emitters per plant and designing the diameter of the uphill and steep downhill laterals were also developed.The nonlinear equations for determining lateral diameter and lateral length were solved iteratively by using the built-in root-finding function of(ToolsGoal Seek…)in the calculation spreadsheet of Microsoft Excel.The procedures also provide the options to fix the design lateral diameter with the commercial standard size or fix the design lateral length based on the field size.The operating inlet pressure and maximum amplitude of the pressure head throughout the lateral could also be determined easily by the procedure.Two numerical applications with various slope combinations indicate that the proposed analytical approach produces results close to the accurate stepwise numerical solutions.In comparison with Keller method,the proposed approach could produce more appropriate designs.     

Identification of nitrate leaching hot spots in a large area with contrasting soil texture and management

Identification of nitrate (NO₃) leaching hot spots is important in mitigating environmental effect of NO₃. Once identified, the hot spots can be further analyzed in detail for evaluating appropriate alternative management techniques to reduce impact of nitrate on groundwater. This study was conducted to identify NO₃ leaching hot spots in an approximately 36,000 ha area in Serik plain, which is used intensively for agriculture in the Antalya region of Southern Turkey. Geo-referenced water samples were taken from 161 wells and from the representative soils around the wells during the period from late May to early June of 2009. The data were analyzed by classical statistics and geostatistics. Both soil and groundwater NO₃-N concentrations demonstrated a considerably high variation, with a mean of 10.2 mg kg⁻¹ and 2.1 mg L⁻¹ NO₃-N for soil and groundwater, respectively. The NO₃-N concentrations ranged from 0.01 to 102.5 mg L⁻¹ in well waters and from 1.89 to 106.4 mg kg⁻¹ in soils. Nitrate leaching was spatially dependent in the study area. Six hot spots were identified in the plain, and in general, the hot spots coincided with high water table, high sand content, and irrigated wheat and cotton. The adverse effects of NO₃ can be mitigated by switching the surface and furrow irrigation methods to sprinkler irrigation, which results in a more efficient N and water use. Computer models such as NLEAP can be used to analyze alternative management practices together with soil, aquifer, and climate characteristics to determine a set of management alternatives to mitigate NO₃ effect in these hot spot areas.