Lunar surface radioactivity: preliminary results of the apollo 15 and apollo 16 gamma-ray spectrometer experiments

Gamma-ray spectrometers on the Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 missions have been used to map the moon's radioactivity over 20 percent of its surface. The highest levels of natural radioactivity are found in Mare Imbrium and Oceanus Procellarum with contrastingly lower enhancements in the eastern maria. The ratio of potassium to uranium is higher on the far side than on the near side, although it is everywhere lower than commonly found on the earth.     

山西隰县玉露香梨花期冻害成因分析

利用隰县国家气象自动观测站、香梨花期冻害区南唐户村和乔村区域气象自动观测站的常规观测资料和香梨发育期观测及冻害资料,对2018年4月6—7日山西隰县香梨花期冻害发生的气象条件、果树条件、冻害程度进行研究。结果表明,此次香梨花期冻害程度判断为重度冻害。造成冻害的原因:第1,前期气温异常偏高,导致花期提前10~15 d,致使花期冻害风险加大。第2,超强冷影响,Tmin≤-5.0℃且D≥5 h,超过了果树花期重度冻害阈值Tmin≤-5.0℃且D≥1 h。第3,果树品种不同,冻害程度不同,早熟品种重于晚熟品种;同一果树,树冠顶端受冻率明显低于树冠底部。第4,气象条件相同时,冻害程度随海拔升高减轻;不同地形冻害程度不同,盆地重于山地;迎风面重于背风面。研究此次冻害目的,旨在揭示果树花期冻害的成因,为果树花期冻害预报预警及防御提供科学依据。     

Hydrogen Sulfide on IO: Evidence from Telescopic and Laboratory Infrared Spectra

Evidence is reported for hydrogen sulfide (H(2)S) on Io's surface. An infrared band at 3.915 (+/- 0.015) micrometers in several ground-based spectra of Io can be accounted for by reflectance from H(2)S frost deposited on or cocondensed with sulfur dioxide (SO(2)) frost. Temporal variation in the occurrence and intensity of the band suggests that condensed H(2)S on Io's surface is transient, implying a similar variation of H(2)S abundance in Io's atmosphere. The band was observed in full-disk measurements of Io at several orbital longitudes, including once at 24 degrees ( approximately 0.5 hour after Io's reappearance after an eclipse)-but not after another reappearance at 22 degrees -and once at 95 degrees (on Io's leading hemisphere). These results suggest that condensed H(2)S is sparse and variable but can be widespread on Io's surface. When present, it would not only produce the infrared band but would brighten Io's typical surface at ultraviolet and visible wavelengths.     

洛川近地层夜间气温逆温特征及空气扰动防霜可行性分析

为了更加有效地在洛川开展苹果花期霜冻预防技术试验与推广,笔者利用洛川县苹果园梯度观测塔观测的温度、风速数据,采用数理统计方法,分析了洛川近地层夜间气温逆温特征。结果表明：洛川春季辐射降温时,逆温持续时间长、温差大、风速小,具备开展空气扰动防霜的基本条件。洛川逆温出现时间与日出日落时间密切相关,日落后逆温形成,日出后逆温消失。逆温的平均强度为0.7~0.8℃,在冬季最大值出现在午夜,春季（4—5 月）最大值出现在凌晨。春季出现辐射霜冻时,近地层平均逆温强度在2℃以上,最大值可达4℃。逆温的出现受天气影响,当夜间为阴天或有降水时,逆温不会形成。风速对逆温的形成及强度影响极大,当春季夜间风速大于2.5 m/s时,逆温基本上也不存在。     

Smoke modified environment for crop frost protection: a fuzzy logic approach

During cold weather conditions, there is a high possibility that many crops or planted fields will be damaged due to frost, especially during cloudless cold nights. As it is well known the soil stores energy gained from the sun during the day light time. During cloudless cold nights the soil starts to loss this stored energy, and the soil surface temperature starts to drop less than the ambient temperature. When the soil surface temperature becomes around 0 °C the planted corps starts to freeze. This frost problem can highly damage the crops, or affect the crops growth process which leads to great financial losses for the agriculture sector.In this research a new intelligent agriculture controlled environment is presented based on a fuzzy logic system for frost protection in an open field environment by using a smoke generator or burner and a set of distributed wireless sensor nodes. The presented system can also be integrated with the available cell phone network in the farmer's region, so that the farmer can easily monitor and operate more than one field at a time from his home through his cell phone.The demonstrated simulation results over an examined field, have confirmed the ability of the new system to handle the frost problem at critical situations during cold weather condition by maintaining the soil surface temperature above the freezing point and saving the field crops from being damaged.     

霜冻精细化预报模型

通过对榆社基准气候站实测2013年1月1日—12月31日的逐日最低气温、地面最低温度、草面最低温度以及榆社各区域站每日最低气温的分析,结合收集到的霜冻资料,建立区域站与本站的气温关系以及区域站气温与地表温度的关系,形成区域站地表温度与本站最低气温预报值的关系,实现通过本站最低气温来预报区域站最低地温,建立霜冻精细化预报模型。通过2014—2016年实测霜冻数据进行验证,得出:本站最低气温预报的准确度越高,霜冻精细化预报模型预报准确率越高,预报准确率超过90%。当本站最低气温6℃时,区域站范围内可能出现霜冻;当本站最低气温2℃时,本站可能出现霜冻。     

基于MODIS大气廓线产品分析晚霜冻对冬小麦产量的影响

晚霜冻是一种突发性的低温农业气象灾害,在我国黄淮小麦区几乎每年都有不同程度的发生,对冬小麦的稳产影响巨大。针对商丘市2013年发生的冬小麦严重晚霜冻,利用MODIS大气廓线产品分析晚霜冻对冬小麦产量要素的影响,以探究晚霜冻对冬小麦产量要素的影响特征。在获取MYD07_L2产品中的表面温度ST和低空可降水量WVL的基础上,分析晚霜冻过程与温湿度时间序列的关系,结合受冻小麦的实测数据,构建温湿度特征空间,分析低温低湿对产量要素的影响特征。结果表明:ST和WVL可以很好地反映研究区冬小麦生长的气象环境条件,其极端低温日期与实际的晚霜冻发生日期匹配良好,能很好地反映晚霜冻发生时冬小麦的低温低湿状态;晚霜冻发生过程中温湿度对穗粒数有显著的影响,最低温对穗粒数的影响明显,0℃以下的低温也呈现显著的叠加效应,对穗粒数影响显著;低温和低湿的共同作用对穗粒数有明显影响,小于0℃低温叠加与极端最低温对穗粒数的显著影响相似,能反映晚霜冻对穗粒数的明显影响。研究结果可对冬小麦拔节后晚霜冻造成产量影响的早期预判提供依据。     

晚霜茶园下垫面气温变化动态

早春晚霜冻害对早熟名优茶生产造成严重危害,为探索茶园防霜方法与技术,研究了晚霜时茶园下垫面气温的变化特点。在分析茶园小气候和晚霜形成的基础上,试验测定茶树冠层上方12 m高度范围内的气温,分析其时空分布特征,以及不同天气条件对成霜的影响。结果表明：在早春晴朗、风速小于05 m·s-1的夜晚,当气温降至0℃时,易随辐射逆温的出现而成霜,风速大于20 m·s-1或阴雨天时则无霜;逆温约始于傍晚17：30,之后逆温强度迅速增大,最大的逆温差为99℃;从20：00至第2日06：00逆温强度波动较平稳,平均波动率为141%,其后逆温强度迅速减弱,在8：00左右逆温基本消失;在1：00～6：00时段,近地气温在高度方向上分层显著,（0～30）,（60～75） m高度范围的温升变化率较大,分别为151 ℃·m-1和158 ℃·m-1,而（30～60）,（75～120） m高度范围的温升变化不明显,故60～75 m可作为防霜风机优选的安装高度。     

Mariner 9 television reconnaissance of Mars and its satellites: preliminary results

At orbit insertion on 14 November 1971 the Martian surface was largely obscured by a dust haze with an extinction optical depth that ranged from near unity in the south polar region to probably greater than 2 over most of the planet. The only features clearly visible were the south polar cap, one dark, spot in Nix Olympica, and three dark spots in the Tharsis region. During the third week the atmosphere began to clear and surface visibility improved, but contrasts remained a fraction of their normal value. Each of the dark spots that apparently protrude through most of the dust-filled atmosphere has a crater or crater complex in its center. The craters are rimless and have featureless floors that, in the crater complexes, are at different levels. The largest crater within the southernmost spot is approximately 100 kilometers wide. The craters apparently were formed by subsidence and resemble terrestrial calderas. The south polar cap has a regular margin, suggsting very flat topography. Two craters outside the cap have frost on their floors; an apparent crater rim within the cap is frost free, indicating preferentia loss of frost from elevated ground. If this is so then the curvilinear streaks, which were frost covered in 1969 and are now clear of frost, may be low-relief ridges. Closeup pictures of Phobos and Deimos show that Phobos is about 25 +/-5 by 21 +/-1 kilometers and Deimos is about 13.5 +/- 2 by 12.0 +/-0.5 kilometers. Both have irregular shapes and are highly cratered, with some craters showing raised rims. The satellites are dark objects with geometric albedos of 0.05.     

Evidence for ammonium-bearing minerals on ceres

Spectra obtained from recent telescopic observation of 1-Ceres and laboratory measurements and theoretical calculations of three component mixtures of Ceres analog material suggest that an ammoniated phyllosilicate is present on the surface of the asteroid, rather than H(2)O frost as had been previously reported. The presence of an ammoniated phyllosilicate, most likely ammoniated saponite, on the surface of Ceres implies that secondary temperatures could not have exceeded 400 kelvin.     

霜冻害对紫椴人工幼龄林的影响

通过野外林分调查和实验室分析，研究了霜冻对紫椴人工幼林保存率的影响。研究表明，霜冻害是造成紫椴人工幼林保存率低及长时间影响生长的主要原因。霜冻害使紫椴的叶、芽、干及根颈和干基都没程度受害，其中根颈或干基受害最重，对紫椴危害最大。受霜冻害的部位多数在节处，其受害率占同株树病斑总数的62.8％。顶芽枯死及干基或根颈受害是紫椴丛生的主要原因。在受害的紫椴枝干上分离到了具有致冷冻作用的冰核活性细菌（Erwinia spp.），经接种其致病率可高达92.3％。坡上受逆温的影响，温度高，紫椴发生冻害少，保存率高；坡中次之；坡下温度最低，紫椴保存率低。     

陇东旱塬冬小麦品种抗晚霜冻能力鉴定

利用熟性不同抗晚霜能力不同的15个冬小麦品种,采用塑料大棚(返青后)和露地两种栽培方式,在2006年两次自然晚霜冻条件下,分别调查、镜检叶片和幼穗的受冻状况,并同步测定冻前冻后叶片汁液可溶性固形物浓度。结果表明:大棚小麦的抗霜力弱于露地;前期生长发育越快的品种,抵御晚霜冻的能力越差;在早、中、晚熟组中抗霜性较好的品种分别是太原475、西峰22、OS.U.W8034;关于叶片汁液可溶性固形物浓度与品种抗晚霜性的关系,有待继续进行研究。     

近55年郴州市霜冻变化特征分析

利用1961—2015年郴州10个地面气象站均一性订正后的逐日最低气温资料,统计出日最低气温≤0℃的日期,采用线性倾向估计法、多项式趋势分析、功率谱分析、正态分布原理等方法,研究近55年来郴州市初、终霜冻和无霜期变化特征。结果表明,近55年来郴州市平均终霜日为2月15日,平均初霜日为12月1日,平均无霜期为280 d。郴州市霜冻呈现平均初霜日推迟(速率0.874 d/10 a)、平均终霜日显著提前(速率4.216 d/10 a)、平均无霜期延长(速率3.443 d/10 a)的趋势。郴州市初、终霜日存在一个2.30年的周期,终霜日存在一个9.14年的主周期,无霜日存在一个16.00年的周期。郴州市特早初霜冻发生频率为1.8%~7.3%,偏早初霜发生频率为5.5%~14.6%,特晚终霜冻发生频率为1.8%~5.5%,偏晚终霜冻发生频率为5.5%~18.2%。     

山东省霜冻的气候变化特征分析

[目的]研究山东省霜冻的气候变化特征。[方法]以秋季或春季日最低地面温度≤0℃作为霜冻指标,利用1961～2008年山东省67个气象监测站的逐日地面最低温度资料,采用气候诊断分析方法,对山东省初、终霜日期和无霜期的变化特征进行了分析。[结果]近48年来,山东省的初、终霜日和无霜期的气候特征具有明显地域差异。初、终霜日和无霜期的极差均为标准差的3倍以上,说明初、终霜日和无霜期离散程度均较大。近48年山东省平均初霜日以1.99 d/10a的速率推迟,终霜日以1.46 d/10a的速率提早,初霜日推迟幅度比终霜日提早幅度大;无霜期以3.42 d/10a的速率延长。从年代际变化来看,初霜日20世纪90年代以后开始明显推迟,终霜日90年代之后明显提早,无霜期是90年代开始明显延长。[结论]该研究为霜冻灾害的预测预防和农作物结构调整提供一定的参考。     

Polar Volatiles on Mars--Theory versus Observation: Excess solid carbon dioxide is probably present in the north residual cap

The residual frost caps of Mars are probably water-ice. They may be the source of the water vapor associated with seasonal polar hoods. A permanent reservoir of solid CO(2) is also probably present within the north residual cap and may comprise a mass of CO(2) some two to five times that of the present atmosphere of Mars. The martian atmospheric pressure is probably regulated by the temperature of the reservoir and not by the annual heat balance of exposed solid CO(2) (37). The present reservoir temperature presumably reflects a long-term average of the polar heat balance. The question of a large permanent north polar cap is reexamined in light of the Mariner 9 data. The lower general elevation of the north polar region compared to the south and the resulting occurrence in the north of a permanent CO(2) deposit are probably responsible for the differences in size and shape of the two residual caps. The details of the processes involved are less apparent, however. It might be argued that the stability of water-ice deposits depends on both insolation and altitude. The present north and south residual caps should be symmetrically located with respect to such a hypothetical stability field. However, the offset of the south cap from the geometrical pole, the non-symmetrical outline of the north cap, and the apparently uniform thickness of the thin, widespread water-ice all argue against control by simple solid-vapor equilibrium of water under present environmental conditions. We think that the present location of the water-ice may reflect, in part, the past location of the permanent CO(2) reservoir. The extreme stability of polar water-ice deposits increases the likelihood that past environmental conditions may be recorded there. Detailed information on elevations in the vicinity of the residual caps is needed before we can further elucidate the nature and history of the residual caps. This, along with measurements of polar infrared emission, should be given high priority in future missions to Mars. Two conclusions follow from the limitation of the mass of solid CO(2) on Mars at present to two to five times the mass of CO(2) in the atmosphere. If all of this CO(2) was entirely sublimated into the atmosphere as a result of hypothetical astronomical or geophysical effects, the average surface pressure would increase to 15 to 30 mbar. Although such a change would have considerable significance for eolian erosion and transportation, there seems to be little possibility that a sufficiently earthlike atmosphere could result for liquid water to become an active erosional agent, as postulated by Milton (38). The pressure broadening required for a green-house effect requires at least 10 to 20 times more pressure (39). If liquid water was ever active in modifying the martian surface, it must have been at an earlier epoch, before the present, very stable CO(2)/H(2)O system developed. There can be no intermittent earthlike episodes now. Furthermore, the present abundance of CO(2) on Mars may be an indicator of the cumulative evolution of volatiles to the surface of the planet (40). Thus, even the possibility of an earlier earth-like episode is dimmed. On Mars, the total CO(2) definitely outgassed has evidently been about 60 +/- 20 g/cm(2). On the earth, about 70 +/- 30 kg/cm(2) of CO(2) have been released to the surface (41). Hence, the total CO(2) devolved by Mars per unit area is about 0.1 percent of that evolved by the earth. Thus, the observational limits we place on solid CO(2) presently located under the north residual cap also may constitute considerable constraints on the total differentiation and devolatilization of the planet. If they are valid, it would seem unlikely that Mars has devolatilized at all like the earth, or ever experienced an earthlike environment on its surface.     

Increased Surface Albedo in the Northern Hemisphere: Did satellites warn of the weather troubles of 1972 and 1973?

Routine mapping of snow and ice fields in the northern hemisphere was started by NOAA in 1967. Large year-to-year variations of the snow and pack-ice covers were observed. The annual mean coverage increased by 12 percent during 1971 and has remained high. The index R, which shows the approximate amount of energy reflected from the surface by snow and ice under the mean cloudiness, increased correspondingly. Thus, if the cloud cover over the snow fields did not increase substantially, the anomalous weather patterns of 1972 and 1973 could have been connected with the deficit in surface heat exchange which originated in the northern hemisphere the year before. During the past 7 years the largest changes occurred in the fall and in the continental interiors of Asia and America (8). Two synoptic parameters which could readily provide information on the development of snow and ice cover in the northern hemisphere are (i) the total area momentarily covered and (ii) the running annual mean of snow and ice coverage for the preceding 1-year period. By 20 September 1973 the annual mean coverage was 37.3 x 10(6) km(2), 11 to 12 percent higher than at the same time during 1968 through 1970. Snow cover-fall, the season when 15 x 10(6) to 55 x 10(6) km(2) of the northern hemisphere is covered with snow and ice, started on 20 September 1973, compared to 17 September 1972 and 5 or 10 October during 1967 through 1970. The links between the atmosphere, the oceans, and the land surfaces must be better understood before the role of snow and ice can be thoroughly explained and exploited for long-range weather forecasting. But it is clear that snow, hitherto almost overlooked in synoptic meteorological reports, must be important in the mechanism of weather changes.     

The Effect of Surface Roughness on Triton's Volatile Distribution

Calculations of radiative equilibrium temperatures on Triton's rough surface suggest that significant condensation of N(2) may be occurring in the northern equatorial regions, despite their relatively dark appearance. The bright frost is not apparent in the Voyager images because it tends to be concentrated in relatively unilluminated facets of the surface. This patchwork of bright frost-covered regions and darker bare ground may be distributed on scales smaller than that of the Voyager resolution; as a result the northern equatorial regions may appear relatively dark. This hypothesis also accounts for the observed wind direction in the southern hemisphere because it implies that the equatorial regions are warmer than the south polar regions.     

Subseabed disposal of nuclear wastes

Fine-grained clay formations within stable (predictable) deep-sea regions away from lithospheric plate boundaries and productive surface waters have properties that might serve to permanently isolate radioactive waste. The most important characteristics of such clays are their vertical and lateral unifomity, low permeability, very high cation retention capacity, and potential for self-healing when disturbed. The most attractive abyssal clay formation (oxidized red ciay)covers nearly 30 percent of the sea floor and hence 20 percent of the earth's surface.     

不同采收时间棉花衣分和纤维品质的比较分析

以17个不同类别的棉花品系为试验材料,采取不同时间收获籽棉,研究其衣分和纤维品质的变化趋势。结果表明:衣分以前期收获籽棉的最高,霜后花的最低;棉纤维长度受环境因素影响较小,比强度则以中前期收获的棉纤维较高,霜后花比强度明显下降,霜后花的棉纤维马克隆值均在4.0以下,棉纤维成熟度最差。     

Carbon dioxide supersaturation in the surface waters of lakes

Data on the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (CO(2)) in the surface waters from a large number of lakes (1835) with a worldwide distribution show that only a small proportion of the 4665 samples analyzed (less than 10 percent) were within +/-20 percent of equilibrium with the atmosphere and that most samples (87 percent) were supersaturated. The mean partial pressure of CO(2) averaged 1036 microatmospheres, about three times the value in the overlying atmosphere, indicating that lakes are sources rather than sinks of atmospheric CO(2). On a global scale, the potential efflux of CO(2) from lakes (about 0.14 x 10(15) grams of carbon per year) is about half as large as riverine transport of organic plus inorganic carbon to the ocean. Lakes are a small but potentially important conduit for carbon from terrestrial sources to the atmospheric sink.