Added value from an added chromosome: Potential of producing large fillet fish from autumn to spring with triploid rainbow trout,Oncorhynchus mykiss

Three‐summers‐old all‐female triploid and diploid rainbow trout were compared after one on‐growing season in sea net cages. Slaughter traits of round weight, gutted weight, fillet weight, carcass% and fillet% were measured at three times in November 2017, January and April 2018. The triploid group had lower daily growth coefficient mean (4.25) and higher feed conversion ratio (1.18) than diploids (4.48 and 1.05, respectively) during on‐growing (June–November). In November, no difference of means was found between mature or immature diploids and triploids for any of the weight traits when the effect of vertebrae defects was statistically removed. However, the triploids had attained higher means than mature or immature diploids in gutted and fillet weight by January, suggesting that the loss of muscle mass during early winter was lower in triploids. Sexually maturing diploids (46%) had lower slaughter yield means compared to triploids or immature diploids at each measurement time, and these differences also increased during overwintering. Instead, the means of yield traits remained similar between the triploid and immature diploid groups through the winter. Likewise, fillet redness remained at equally high level in triploids and immature diploids, whereas in maturing diploids this attribute decreased substantially during overwintering. The triploid group had a higher incidence of vertebral defects (12.0%) than diploids (5.3%). The present results demonstrate the potential of triploid trout in producing large‐sized (>2 kg) fillet fish until spring markets. However, more detailed investigations are needed, particularly regarding the animal health and growth efficiency in triploids, relative to their diploid counterparts.     

Induction of triploidy in mud loach (Misgurnus mizolepis) and its effect on gonad development and growth

Triploidy was induced in mud loach (Misgurnus mizolepis) by cold shocking fertilized eggs 5 min post-fertilization at 2°C for 15 to 60 min. Best results were obtained when eggs were shocked for 60 min; 98% of fish examined in that treatment were triploids. Triploidy was confirmed by erythrocyte measurements and chromosome counts. Diploids had 48 chromosomes, while triploids had 72. Histological analysis of 9-month-old triploid ovaries showed an appreciable number of oocytes at the chromatin nucleolus stage with considerable interstitial tissue. However, diploids had well developed oocytes. Diploid testes from diploid males exhibited normal spermatids and spermatozoa, while a few were seen in triploid males. Growth rate was evaluated over a 9-month growth trial. Although male and female triploids were slightly heavier than their diploid counterparts from the third to the ninth month, their growth rates were not significantly different compared to their diploid controls.     

Comparative Growth of Diploid and Triploid Asian Catfish Clarias macrocephalus in Thailand

Wild caught Asian catfish were spawned manually following HCG injection, and a portion of the eggs were subjected to cold-shock at 4 C for 15 min within 2-min post-fertilization. Nuclear diameter measurements of cold-shocked fish revealed that 96% were triploids (3N), while non-shocked fish were all diploids (2N). During larval and fry culture (first 26 d), triploid fish mortality was =50%, while diploid mortality was =25%. Following 8-mo culture in tanks at three stocking densities, triploid fish survival was significantly greater ( P < 0.05), than diploids, with 84.0% and 57.3%, respectively. Triploid live weight was also significantly greater than diploids, with 69.2 and 45.9 g averages, respectively. Ninety-two percent of diploids had welldeveloped gonads after 8 mo; whereas none of the triploids had mature gonads. Gonads were undifferentiated with 31% of the triploids. These sexually undifferentiated fish had greater growth rates than male or female triploids, and greater growth than all diploids. Carcass weight (gutted) of triploids was 95.8% of live weight, compared with 92.5% for diploids. Lastly, triploids had very few deformities compared with diploids, with 1.3% and 17.6%, respectively. Deformities included curved spines, and humped backs just posterior of the head.     

Studies on aneuploid pearl oyster (Pinctada martensii Dunker) produced by crossing triploid females and a diploid male following the inhibition of PB1

Viable aneuploid embryos of pearl oyster, Pinctada martensii Dunker, were produced by inhibiting the first polar body (PB1) with cytochalasin B treatment in eggs from triploids fertilized with haploid sperm. During the period of growth measurement, aneuploid showed the slowest growth compared with diploid and triploid groups. The body size and weight measurement data showed that there were no differences between aneuploids (as a group) and diploids in body size and weight (P>0.10), but that they were significantly different from triploids (P<0.01). There were no differences between aneuploids within diploid condition (2n±n) and diploids in SL (P>0.1), but significant differences in BW were found (P<0.05). Aneuploids within triploid condition (3n±n) were significantly smaller than triploids in BW (P<0.05), but not different from triploids in SL (P>0.05), and almost identical to diploids in both (P>0.1). These dada indicated that some aneuploids might be associated with growth retardation. Karyotype analysis revealed that there were metacentric, submetacentric or subtelocentric chromosomes losses or gains; aneuploid pearl oysters with the same chromosome numbers had different chromosome composition. Aneuploids are valuable research materials for genetic analysis.     

Hemoglobin level,metabolic rate,opercular abduction rate and swimming efficiency in female triploid brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)

Metabolic (oxygen consumption) rate, opercular abduction rate and tail beat frequency were determined in two strains of diploid and triploid female brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) while these fish swam at 0.37±0.02 body lengths per sec in a Blazka respirometer. Total blood hemoglobin level was also measured and opercular condition examined. Total blood hemoglobin levels in diploids and triploids were equal. The opercular abduction rate was the same in diploids and triploids (regardless of whether triploid opercular condition was good or poor) yet triploids had a lower oxygen consumption rate than diploids, indicating that triploids take up less oxygen than diploids per opercular cycle. Tail beat frequency, an indicator of swimming effort, was the same in diploids and triploids, suggesting that triploids require less oxygen than diploids for a similar swimming effort.     

Growth and Survival of Intrastrain and Interstrain Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Triploids1

Triploid rainbow trout exhibit improved survival and extended growth during sexual maturation, compared to their diploid counterparts. However, there have been few benefits demonstrated prior to sexual maturation. This study was undertaken to investigate the possibility of improving growth and survival parameters in triploids through interstrain crosses. Triploids were induced by heat shocking fertilized eggs from intra- and interstrain crosses of two rainbow trout strains. The four triploid groups and their diploid counterpart groups were reared to 233 days post-hatching and analyzed for growth and survival characteristics. Compared with diploids, triploids had significantly (P < 0.05) higher mortalities during the first 100 days post-fertilization, primarily just prior to and after hatching. However, during the remainder of the study triploids exhibited significantly (P < 0.05) lower mortalities than diploids. During the first 50 days of rearing all four triploid groups were significantly shorter and lighter than their diploid counterparts. The growth of the triploid groups later in the study varied considerably. At the conclusion of the rearing phase, one interstrain triploid group was significantly (P < 0.05) longer than its diploid counterpart, although not significantly heavier. The other triploid groups were either significantly smaller than, or equal to the diploids. Analysis of variance indicated that the growth of triploid rainbow trout was significantly affected by maternal strain effects. These results suggest that the use of specific strains and crosses may improve the growth of triploid rainbow trout.     

Covariation between diploid and triploid progenies from common breeders in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum)

The covariation between diploid and triploid progenies from common breeders was investigated in various progeny-testing experiments where either dams or sires were sampled from rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), stocks. Triploidiza tion was found to frequently reduce the performance in the traits studied: body length and weight, growth, coefficient of condition and pyloric caeca number. Triploidization also generated significant interactions with the parental breeding value. These interactions were caused in part by the familial variance not being the same in triploids as in diploids, but also by actual ranking differences between diploid and triploid familial performances. However, the effect of these interactions was minor as compared with the amount of variation common to both ploidy levels (genetic correlations averaged 0.7–0.9). Therefore, selection of diploid breeders appeared efficient enough for improving triploid progeny, unless family selection methods including triploid progeny testing were preferred for other reasons. Lastly, it was observed that variances from maternal origin tended to be larger in triploids, whereas variances from paternal origin tended to be smaller, as compared with diploids. This point was discussed referring to the genetic make-up of triploids and in the scope of dams and sires for selective breeding.     

Effects of temperature on feed intake and plasma chemistry after exhaustive exercise in triploid brown trout (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Salmo trutta</Emphasis> L)

The physiological effect of temperature on feed intake and haematological parameters after exhaustive swimming in diploid and triploid brown trout (Salmo trutta) was investigated. Trout were exposed to an incremental temperature challenge (2 °C/day) from ambient (6 °C) to either 10 or 19 °C. Feed intake profiles did not differ between ploidy at 10 °C; however, triploids had a significantly higher total feed intake at 19 °C. After 24 days, each temperature–ploidy group was exposed to exhaustive swimming for 10 min. The haematological response differed between ploidy, with the magnitude of the response affected by temperature and ploidy. Post-exercise, acid–base and ionic differences were observed. Plasma lactate increased significantly from rest for both temperature and ploidy groups, but glucose increased significantly at higher temperature. Post-exercise, triploids at 19 °C had significantly higher osmolality and cholesterol than diploids, but differences were resumed within 4 h. Elevated alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) in fish at higher temperature suggested greater tissue damage; however, both ploidy responded similarly. Despite no significant differences in deformity prevalence, the type and location of deformities observed differed between ploidy (decreased intervertebral space with higher prevalence in tail area and fin regions for diploids, while vertebral compression, fusion in cranial and caudal trunks for triploids). These results suggest triploids have greater appetite than diploids at elevated temperature and that triploids suffer similar blood disturbances after exercise as diploids. These findings have implications for the management of freshwater ecosystems and suggest that stocking triploid brown trout may offer an alternative to diploid brown trout.     

三倍体僧帽牡蛎生殖腺发育观察

在僧帽牡蛎繁殖盛期,详细观察了二倍体,三倍体僧帽牡蛎生殖腺外部形态特征,比较了成熟卵母细胞卵径和核径。结果表明,外观上三倍体生殖腺发育较二倍体差,三倍本成熟卵母细胞卵径和核径分别比地倍体大１９．６％和１７．６％,体积分别比二倍体增加７０．３％和６４．２％,组织切片检查结果,二倍体生殖腺发育正常,三倍体生殖腺发育受阻,大都在增殖期和休止期,一部分个体可发育至生长期和成熟期,并能产生成熟的卵子和精子,     

Growth and gonadal development in diploid and triploid Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua)

Induction of triploidy has been suggested as an effective tool to prevent spawning of farmed fish. This experiment examined the growth potential of triploid cod when reared communally with diploid ones after the juvenile stage. Pressure treatment was used to induce triploidy in a batch of cod eggs in April 2009. The resulting offspring were reared separately from their diploid counterparts until they reached the proper size for PIT tagging. At the age of 8 months, an equal number of 115 diploids (135.5 ± 3.95 g) and triploids (93.6 ± 2.63 g) were communally reared in a circular flow-through tank until the age of 22 months. By the end of this rearing period, diploids (1,002.4 ± 39.9 g) were significantly heavier than triploids (654.6 ± 27.7 g), but the specific growth rate did not differ significantly during the growth trial. Gonadal development at the age of 22 months was also lower among triploids than diploids, especially for females (5.3 and 91.9 %) but also for males (32.5 and 72.7 %). Sterility among female triploids was evident by the reduced size and dysfunctional gonads, but gonadal development in male triploids was less suppressed. Prevalence of body deformities was, however, significantly higher among triploids (62.6 %) than diploids (33.9 %). Higher prevalence of deformities in triploid cod underlines the need for further fine-tuning of the triploidization procedure or finding other methods of sterilization. At present, triploid cod are still far from being established as an alternative for commercial production.     

Effects of induced triploidy on aggressive display in the fighting fish, Betta splendens Regan

Abstract. Triploidy was induced in the fighting fish, Betta splendens Regan, by varying all possible combinations of temperature (37-41°C), time after insemination (2-3min)and shock duration (2-4 min). Heat shock at 39°C for 3 min duration initiated 2-5 min after insemination gave high frequencies of triploids (86%) as assessed from chromosome number and red blood cell nuclear volume. There was no significant difference in the growth rate of triploid and diploid fish. Gonadal development in both sexes was retarded in triploids at 5 months of age. Eggs fertilized with milt from triploids developed to gastrulation. Beyond gastrulation there was increasing mortality associated with abnormalities and none of them hatched. The display frequencies of air gulping, erection of operculum and fins, striking and biting, and undulating movements were fewer in triploids compared to diploids. It appears that triploids are less aggressive than diploids. The aggressive behaviour of fighting fish may be related Io their reproductive activity.     

Aquaculture performance of triploid barfin flounder Verasper moseri

ABSTRACT:   To evaluate the aquaculture performance of triploid barfin flounder Verasper moseri , the sex ratio, maturation, growth and the relative proportion of body parts were examined. The sex ratio of triploids was similar to diploids under communal rearing conditions, but the proportion of female diploids was higher than that of triploids under separate rearing conditions. The gonadosomatic index of triploid females was very low even during the spawning season, and the ovaries were rudimentary. These results suggest that triploid barfin flounder females were sterile. In addition, triploid males produced a small quantity of milt containing very few spermatozoa with abnormal shapes. Spermatozoa obtained from triploids were aneuploidies. When normal eggs were fertilized with sperm from triploid males, no fry developed. These results suggest that triploid barfin flounder males were functionally sterile. Triploid males grew more slowly than diploid males, and triploid females showed similar or slower growth than diploid females, whether reared separately (23 months) or communally (35 months). The ratios of visceral weight to the edible parts for triploid males were similar to those for diploid males, but ratios for triploid females were higher than for diploid females during the spawning period. In conclusion, a significant improvement of growth was not found in triploid barfin flounders.     

Larval metamorphosis and morphological characteristic analysis of triploid shrimp Fenneropenaeus chinensis (Osbeck, 1765)

Both MI and MII triploids were successfully produced by heat shock in Chinese shrimp Fenneropenaeus chinensis. The inducing conditions for MI and MII triploids were optimized. The highest inducing rate obtained for MI triploids reached more than 90%, and that for MII triploids reached nearly 100% at the nauplius stage as evaluated using flow cytometry. Comparisons of survival rates at larval stages between triploids and diploids or diploids experiencing treatment and diploids without treatment were performed. At larval stage from nauplii to postlarvae, heat shocks lowered survival at larval stages even if the ploidy was not changed. Ploidy did not affect shrimp larvae survival, and no significant difference was found in the survival of shrimp larvae between MI and MII triploids. Highly significant differences were observed in the morphology of triploids and diploids, and no apparent difference was found in the morphology of MI and MII triploids at the grow‐out stages. Discriminating formulae for triploid and diploid shrimp at grow‐out stage were developed and could be used to distinguish triploids from diploids based on morphological parameters. MI and MII triploids of shrimp have the potential to be used in aquaculture.     

Growth and reproductive performance of triploid and diploid blacklip abalone, Haliotis rubra (Leach, 1814)

Growth and reproduction of triploid and diploid blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra (Leach, 1814) were compared in a 30-month study. Triploidy was induced by inhibition of the second polar body formation using 6-dimethylaminopurine (6-DMAP) or cytochalasin B (CB). There were no significant differences in growth and survivorship between triploid and diploid abalone. However, triploid abalone had a more elongated shell and greater foot muscles than diploid abalone. A slightly curvilinear growth in shell length was conformed to all treatments. While diploid abalone had reached sexual maturity and spawned during the study, gonadal development and gamete maturation were abnormal in triploids. Female triploids lacked an apparent gonad at the macroscopic level but microscopic examination revealed that they had a thin layer of oogonia development. In contrast, male triploids were able to form similar-sized gonads to diploids during most of the reproductive period, but with brown-yellow discolouration and stalled gametogenesis at spermatocyte formation. Sex ratio of triploid abalone did not deviate from 1:1. With the onset of sexual maturation, growth and gonadal maturation occurred concurrently in diploid abalone, and there was no indication that growth of (diploid) abalone was reduced.     

Comparative growth performances of diploid and triploid Chinese shrimp Fenneropenaeus chinensis (Osbeck, 1765) under different salinities

This study aimed at evaluating the ploidy effects on growth performances of Chinese shrimp ( Fenneropenaeus chinensis Osbeck, 1765) reared in different salinities under laboratory conditions. In the acute salinity experiment, there was no difference ( P >0.05) in tolerance observed in triploid and diploid shrimp due to abrupt salinity changes. The lethal salinity for 50% of the individuals in 96 h at 23–25 °C was about 2 g L⁻¹ in both triploids and diploids. While for the chronic salinity experiment, statistical analyses confirmed that the differences in growth performances including the specific growth rate (SGR), the feeding rate (FR), feed conversion efficiency (FCE) and intermoult period (IP) between triploid and diploid were related to salinity. Diploid shrimp reared in 20 g L⁻¹ exhibited highest SGR ( P <0.05), while triploids performed well in 20 and 30 g L⁻¹ salinities ( P <0.05). Based on the survival and growth data, the optimal salinity for the culture of diploid F. chinensis should be 20 g L⁻¹ and for triploids it should be between 20 and 30 g L⁻¹.     

Studies on triploid oysters in Australia: effect of initial size on growth of diploid and triploid Sydney rock oysters, Saccostrea commercialis (Iredale & Roughley)

In a 2-year grow-out trial, triploid Sydney rock oysters, Saccostrea commercialis (Iredale & Roughley), from two initial size grades grew faster (in terms of both mean whole weight and shell height) than the equivalent initial size grades of sibling diploids (P < 0.05). Small size grade triploids caught up with and had significantly heavier (P < 0.05) final whole weights than large size grade diploids after a 2-years grow-out period. The initial size grade had a significant effect on final mean whole weight and shell height for both ploidy types. After the 2-years grow-out trial, the final mean whole weights (but not shell heights) of small and large diploids (35.8 ± 0.6 g and 39.4 ± 0.5 g, respectively) were significantly different (P < 0.05). Small and large triploids grew at a similar rate for the first 18 months despite the significantly (P < 0.05) heavier final mean weight of large grade triploids (48.4 ± 0.8 g and 61.2 ± 0.7 g, respectively). The effect of the initial size grade on subsequent growth of both diploid and triploid oysters which was demonstrated in the present study is of significant commercial value to hatchery and nursery operators as well as growers of single seed oysters. In addition, small-grade triploids appeared to be more valuable in terms of potential growth rate than all diploid grades. There was no significant difference in the final percentage triploidy between small and large grade triploids. A large proportion of diploid/triploid mosaicism was detected in adult oysters.     

Growth Performance of Triploid Red Tilapia Reared Under Laboratory Conditions

Triploidy could reduce breeding activity in tilapia without the use of hormones. In this study, the effect of triploidy on survival, growth, and gender of a line of red hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus X Oreochromis niloticus) was assessed relative to the performance of diploid siblings. Triploidy was induced by preventing second polar body extrusion by applying either heat or cold shock. Growth was similar for both ploidies during the first 90 days of culture. However, at the age of 120 days, the average body weight of triploids produced by heat shock (215.5 ± 3.61 g) was significantly higher than that of cold shock (192.7 ± 2.6 g) and the diploid control (191.9 ± 1.74 g). Survival among triploids was inferior to diploids. Percentage of males in the triploid population was 82.9% in the heat-shocked treatment group, 54.8% in the cold-shock treatment, and 50% in the diploid control. Maximum attainable weight of red tilapia was calculated by applying the Ford-Walford growth plot: 650 g (heat-shocked triploids), 490 g (cold-shocked triploids), and 440 g in the diploid control.     

Triploid hard clams Mercenaria mercenaria produced by inhibiting polar body I or polar body II

Two types of triploid hard clams Mercenaria mercenaria were produced by inhibiting polar body I (PB1) or polar body II (PB2) with cytochalasin B. Treatments were applied at 22–23°C, with PB1 inhibition starting at 4–7 min postfertilization and ending when PB2 was first observed in control groups, and with PB2 inhibition starting at 17–23 min postfertilization and ending when 80% of control eggs released PB2. Triploid induction success was evaluated by chromosome counting in 2–4 cell embryos and by flow cytometry at larval and juvenile stages. PB2 inhibition produced more triploids (82%–100%) than PB1 inhibition (71%–83%), although the difference was not significant (p ≥ .088). Triploid percentages in PB1‐ or PB2‐inhibited groups showed a small but insignificant decline during the first 6 months. At month 3, PB1 and PB2 triploids were not different from their within‐group diploids, but significantly larger than control diploids; PB1 triploids were significantly larger than PB2 triploids (p ≤ .003). At month 6, PB1 triploids were not different from either within‐group or control‐group diploids, while PB2 triploids were significant larger than both within‐group and control diploid; PB1 triploids were smaller than PB2 triploids. At month 16, PB1 and PB2 triploids in one remaining replicate were not different from their within‐group diploids. Overall, this study shows that triploids can be efficiently produced by PB1 or PB2 inhibition, and their growth performance relative to diploids is variable depending on age and replicates or parental genotype.     

A comparative study of growth and feed utilization efficiency of sex-reversed diploid and triploid Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus L.

Growth performance, survival and feed utilization of diploid (2n) and triploid (3n) sex‐reversed male and female Nile tilapia were evaluated at maintenance feeding (1% body weight (BW) day^?1), fixed feeding (3% BW day^?1) and apparent satiation feeding levels in a freshwater recirculation system comprised of thirty‐six 1‐m³ concrete tanks at the Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand. Triploid Nile tilapia (3n) was produced by subjecting fertilized diploid (2n) tilapia eggs to heat shock. After hatching, fish were sex‐reversed to all‐male and all‐female populations by oral administration of 17 α‐methyltestosterone (60 mg kg^?1 feed) and ethynylestradiol (100 mg kg^?1 feed) respectively. There was significantly higher growth with increased ration levels in both male and female groups. There were no significant differences in final BW, specific growth rate, survival rate, feed conversion ratio and protein efficiency ratio between diploid and triploid fish. Triploids had lower gonad weights than diploids, and this was particularly evident at the satiation feeding level. Triploid fish had a significantly higher apparent net protein utilization and percentage of gutted weight than diploids at all feeding levels. Higher protein utilization efficiency of triploids might be an advantage for commercial tilapia culture but further research is necessary to make such a conclusion.     

Effect of ploidy on the mortality of Crassostrea gigas spat caused by OsHV‐1 in France using unselected and selected OsHV‐1 resistant oysters

The effect of ploidy on the mortality of Crassostrea gigas spat caused by the ostreid herpesvirus (OsHV‐1) genotype μVar was investigated at five sites along the Atlantic coast in France in 2011. Sibling diploids and triploids were produced using either unselected or selected OsHV‐1‐resistant oysters. No significant interactions were found between the factors of environment, genotype and ploidy at the endpoint dates. The mean mortality rates at the sites were 62% and 59% for diploids and triploids, respectively, and the two rates were not significantly different. The mean mortality rates were 33% and 32% for sibling diploids and triploids, respectively, when OsHV‐1‐resistant parents were used and 91% and 85%, respectively, when unselected parents were used. The results were confirmed through other broodstocks tested in 2013. Our study is the first to clearly show that mortality related to OsHV‐1 is similar between diploids and triploids in C. gigas when the same germplasm is used for both ploidy. Furthermore, OsHV‐1 resistance was not substantially altered by triploidization, indicating that the achieved selective breeding of diploid oysters for OsHV‐1 resistance can be translated into improved survival in triploids.