Temporal and spatial variability in root reinforcement of streambanks: Accounting for soil shear strength and moisture

Riparian vegetation exerts a number of mechanical and hydrologic controls on bank stability, which can affect the delivery of sediment to channels. Estimates of root reinforcement of soils have commonly been attained using perpendicular root models that simply sum root tensile strengths and consider these as an add-on factor to soil strength. A major limitation of such perpendicular models is that tensile strength and resistance is wrongly considered to be independent of soil type and moisture, and therefore variations according to these bank properties are omitted in conventional models. In reality, during mass failure of a streambank, some roots break, and some roots are pulled out of the soil intact; the relative proportions of roots that break or pull out are determined by a combination of soil moisture and shear strength. In this paper an equation to predict the frictional resistance of root–soil bonds was tested against field data collected at Long Creek, MS, under two soil moisture conditions. The root pullout equations were then included in the root-reinforcement model, RipRoot, and bank stability model runs for Goodwin Creek, MS, were carried out in order to examine the effects of spatial and temporal variations in soil shear strength and rooting density, on streambank factor of safety. Model results showed that at smaller root diameters breaking forces exceeded pullout forces, but at larger root diameters pullout forces exceed breaking forces. The threshold diameter between root pullout and root breaking varied with soil shear strength, with increasing soil shear strength leading to a greater proportion of roots failing by breaking instead of pullout. Root-reinforcement estimates were shown to reflect changes in soil shear strength, for example, brought about by variations in soil matric suction. Resulting Factor of safety (F_S) values for the bank during the period modeled ranged from 1.36 to 1.74 with 1000 grass roots/m², compared to a range of 0.97 to 1.37 for the non-vegetated bank. Root reinforcement was shown to increase bank stability under the entire range of soil moisture conditions modeled. However, the magnitude of root reinforcement varied in both space and time as determined by soil shear strength and soil moisture.     

鲱骨状根构型对典型土体抗倾覆力的有限元分析

 设计和实施治理重力侵蚀的生物工程措施需要深入地分析和研究树木根系对土体的抗倾覆力学特性。本文以单株鲱骨（Herringbone）状根构型为研究对象建立二维有限元模型,通过控制侧根与主根的夹角、删减根系不同部分等方法,建立了12种不同几何形态的鲱骨状根结构,并分别验证其在黏土和砂土中的抗倾覆力,由此定量评价根系的不同部分和土壤的差异分别对土体抗倾覆力的贡献率。模拟结果显示:浅层侧根的作用是不可低估的,在黏土中,其贡献率约占整个固土效果的35%40%;根、土复合体在整个破坏过程中形成一个旋转轴,此轴的位置随根系形态、土壤类型的不同而变化。     

冀西北地区白桦根系-土壤界面摩擦性能

林木根系通过摩擦锚固作用实现对土体的固持。以冀西北地区白桦的根系为对象,通过垂直拉拔试验,探究根径、根系土中埋深、土壤含水率、海拔、根系生长方向等因素对根系-土壤界面摩擦性能的影响。结果表明:根土摩擦力随着埋深、根径的增大而增大,同根系直径满足幂函数关系,决定系数大于0.82,拟合良好;土壤含水率由11.85%增大至17.85%,根土摩擦力先增后减,最大拔出力对应土壤含水率范围在13.85%～17.85%之间;不同海拔位置、不同生长方向的根系,其根土界面摩擦力也有所差异。冗余分析结果表明,根系直径和海拔对根土摩擦力贡献接近且较高。研究结果对冀西北地区林木树种的选择和生态环境的保护具有重要的意义。     

尖萼金丝桃根系对边坡土体抗剪强度的影响

[目的]探讨根系单根抗拉拔强度对边坡土体抗剪强度的影响,定量分析根系对边坡土体抗剪强度的增强作用,为评价植物根系增强边坡土体抗剪切性能提供依据。[方法]以2 a生尖萼金丝桃根系及其组成的根土复合体为研究对象,分别进行室内单根拉拔试验和根土复合体剪切试验,获得根系的抗拉强度及根土复合体试样黏聚力值;在此基础上分析根系抗拉强度与根土复合体黏聚力值之间的关系。[结果]尖萼金丝桃根系抗拉强度与根系直径存在负向幂函数关系,相关性系数均大于0.92;根系拉拔位移、抗拉拔力均与根系直径呈正相关关系,拉拔位移与抗拉拔力之间也表现为显著正相关关系;抗拉强度与根系直径、拉拔位移、抗拉拔力两两之间均呈负相关关系;根土复合体的黏聚力相较于无根素土均有不同程度的增长,增幅达17.25%～94.76%,黏聚力、黏聚力增长率均与根土面积比、根土体积比呈正相关关系。[结论]尖萼金丝桃根系拉拔特征对边坡土体抗剪强度产生显著的影响,边坡土体抗剪切性能评价指标与根系拉拔特征变化密切相关。     

灌木柠条锦鸡儿根-黄土状盐渍土界面相互作用力学特性

为了进一步探讨西宁盆地黄土区灌木植物根系固土护坡力学效应,以区内优势灌木植物柠条锦鸡儿为研究对象,开展不同土体密度、含水量、含盐量和根径单因素变化条件下的单根垂直拉拔试验,探讨和分析了上述因素对灌木植物根-土界面相互作用力学特性的影响和作用机理。结果表明:在垂直埋深为25 cm及其他因素恒定的情况下,随着土体密度由1.20 g/cm³增长到1.60 g/cm³,单根最大抗拔出力由(28.60±2.83)N增长至(114.33±7.17)N,呈指数函数增长趋势; 随着土体含水量由6.00%增长到22.00%,单根最大抗拔出力由(152.80±10.07)N降低至(31.50±5.53)N,呈指数函数降低的变化趋势; 随着土体含盐量由0.59%增长至2.00%,单根最大抗拔出力呈现出先增大后减小的变化趋势,在含盐量为1.00%时,单根最大抗拔出力达到峰值(61.20±0.94)N,且二者关系符合二次函数关系; 在根径为2.74～9.57 mm范围内,随着单根平均根径的逐渐增大,单根最大抗拔出力由25.20 N线性增长至97.10 N。在此基础上,提出了垂直单根最大抗拔出力计算模型,并指出计算垂直单根最大抗拔出力所需的根-土界面综合黏聚力和综合摩擦角可通过根-土界面直剪试验获得。     

多孔性护岸工程之植物根力研究

在多孔性砌石护岸中,对其植生根系发育之不同及根系力学特性之差异进行试验研究与评估,探讨其根系实质上的力学贡献与植物群落之变迁,以作为生态工程之护岸植生植物材料之选取与配置以及评估生态效益之依据.为了解及探讨其植生根力特性与机制,而对优势植物进行植株引拔抗力与其生长特性及立地环境等相关影响因子之统计回归分析,建立破坏及非破坏性根力推估模式,并期能了解植物根系特性及固土能力.因此,选取砌石护岸之整治工程中,优势木本植物水麻及山黄麻为试验植物,由植株引拔抗力等试验,进行植物引拔抗力与地际直径-基径、基径上10 cm、树高、树冠幅宽、地上部重、地下部重、地上部干重、地下部干重、土壤含水量、坡度、土壤硬度等相关影响因子之统计逐步回归(stepwise regression)分析与主要机制探讨,建立推估模式.     

油松根系的固土力学机制

为深入了解林木根系固土力学机制,探讨不同条件下的根系固土作用,对油松根系进行了拉伸、拔出和根土复合体三轴试验。结果表明,油松根系的抗拉力随根系直径的增大成幂函数关系增加,而抗拉强度随直径的增大无明显变化规律;根系受拉的应力—应变曲线特征参数不同,以二次多项式模型拟合效果最好,均为单峰曲线,具有弹塑性材料的特征,极限应力和极限延伸率的大小与根系直径无明显的关系;根土界面最大摩擦力随着根径的增加呈现出近似线性的增长趋势。根径越大,根系越深,根土界面摩擦力就越大,进而对土壤的摩擦锚固作用就越强。相同根径时,根土复合体的抗剪强度随围压的增加而增大。相同围压下,根土复合体的抗剪强度随着根径的增加而增大。相同的根径和围压下,垂直埋根方式的根土复合体抗剪效果好于水平埋根方式。     

Quantifying rhizosphere particle movement around mutant maize roots using time‐lapse imaging and particle image velocimetry

Soil surrounding a growing root must be displaced to accommodate the increased root volume. To ease soil penetration, root caps produce border cells and mucilage that lubricate the root surface, decreasing friction at the root‐soil interface. Rhizosphere deformations caused by roots with or without a functional root cap were compared to determine the effects of the root cap on sand displacement and penetration. Intact (KYS wild type) and decapped (agt1_dec mutant) primary maize roots were grown in observation chambers filled with sand. Non‐destructive time‐lapse micro‐imaging combined with particle image velocimetry was used to visualize and quantify sand displacements as small as 0.5 µm caused by growing roots. Decapped (agt1_dec) roots displayed typical responses of mechanically impeded roots at sand densities that did not affect intact KYS roots. Sand displacement decreased exponentially with distance from the root and extended four to eight root radii into the sand. The calculated mean sand density increase and the compressed sand area were doubled by decapping. Maximum density often occurred in front of the apex of decapped roots whereas it occurred along the sides of intact roots. Periodic variation in sand deformation was observed, probably associated with root circumnutation, which may also facilitate soil penetration. Sand particles moved alongside KYS roots more easily than they did alongside agt1_dec roots. A functional exuding cap was therefore essential for efficient rhizosphere deformation and penetration by roots. Manipulating root tip, and specifically root cap, properties is a possible target for improving root penetration in hard soil.     

五种护坡草本植物根系固土效果研究

对于公路边坡而言,植物根系在稳定土壤结构、提高土壤抗冲性、防治土壤侵蚀方面作用显著。为准确地评价植物根系的固土作用,选取北京地区常见的5种护坡草本植物,研究了其根系结构特征和根系强度特征,比较了不同草本植物根系结构的差异,结果表明:选取的草本植物根系生长深度除紫花苜蓿外多在0.6 m以内,沙打旺和狗尾草的根系总长度最大,表现出更好的抵抗拔出破坏的能力,而高羊茅和沙打旺根系在土壤中的数量较多,表现出更好的增强浅层土壤抗剪强度的效果。因此,北京地区的护坡草本植物,从根系固土的角度分析,沙打旺表现最好,其次是狗尾草、高羊茅和白三叶,表现较差的为紫花苜蓿。     

Root tensile strength of three shrub species: Rosa canina, Cotoneaster dammeri and Juniperus horizontalis: Soil reinforcement estimation by laboratory tests

The presence of vegetation increases soil burden stability along slopes and therefore reduces soil erosion. The contribution of the vegetation is due to mechanical (reinforcing soil shear resistance) and hydrologic controls on stream banks and superficial landslides. This study focused on the biotechnical characteristics of the root system of three shrub species: Rosa canina (L.), Cotoneaster dammeri (C.K. Schneid) and Juniperus horizontalis (Moench). The aim of this paper is to increase our understanding on root biomechanical properties of shrubs species and their contribution to soil reinforcement. The considered shrubs grew up in wood containers, exposed to natural conditions in a village near Asti (Northern Italy) for 2 years. Laboratory tests were conducted to measure the ultimate root tensile strength and to estimate the root density distribution with depth (root area ratio), in order to quantify the soil mechanical reinforcement. Root tensile strength measurements were carried out on single root specimens and root area ratio was estimated analyzing the whole root system. The improvement of soil mechanical properties obtained by the presence of shrubs was estimated using two different models. The first model, based on a simple force equilibrium model, considers that the tensile strength of all roots crossing the shear plane is fully mobilized. This classical approach is implemented by the Fiber Bundle Model concept, to account for non-simultaneous root breaking. C. dammeri roots presented the highest tensile strength and soil reinforcement values, while R. canina and J. horizontalis were characterized by lower values. Similarly at each considered depth C. dammeri showed the highest soil reinforcement effect.     

Evaluating soil reinforcement by plant roots using artificial neural networks

Soil reinforcement by plant roots and its response to influencing factors are very important for bank stability evaluation and control. Models with improved accuracy are urgently needed for evaluating soil reinforcement. Using a back‐propagation (BP) learning algorithm, an artificial neural network (ANN) model with five input variables, including the number of roots, root area ratio, root tensile strength, soil shear strength, and soil moisture content, was developed to simulate the response of soil reinforcement to these factors. A connection weight approach was used to understand the relative importance of each factor. Using a data set published in 2003 and collected in Australia, soil reinforcement of four trees, Casuarina glauca, Eucalyptus amplifolia, Eucalyptus elata and Acacia floribunda, was simulated using three models: BP‐ANN, one described by Wu et al. in 1979 and the 2005 fibre bundle model (FBM) of Pollen and Simon. Comparisons of results from these models showed that the BP‐ANN model most accurately estimated the soil reinforcement. The simulated results indicated that only the effect of soil moisture content on soil reinforcement was negative. The influence of the other four factors was positive, and the relative importance was in the order: root area ratio > root tensile strength > the number of roots > soil shear strength. This study provides a new approach to soil reinforcement estimation and improves our understanding of soil resistance and bank stability.     

A numerical investigation into factors affecting the anchorage of roots in tension

The arrangement of a plant's roots in the soil determines the ability of the plant to resist uprooting. We have investigated the influence of root morphology on anchorage using simple patterns of root systems and numerical simulation. The form and mechanical properties of roots were derived from results found in the literature. Major parameters determining soil characteristics, root patterns and strength were varied so that their influence could be evaluated. The design of the experimental method we used generated an optimal number of configurations of different root systems, the tensile resistances of which were calculated by two‐dimensional finite element analysis. We could quantify the influence of specific parameters, e.g. branching angle, number of lateral roots and soil cohesion, as well as global parameters such as total contact area, basal diameter and volume of the whole root system. We found that the number of roots and the diameter of roots were major components affecting the resistance to uprooting. The combination of topology and biomass explained 70% of the variation of tensile resistance.     

A mathematical model of root uptake of cations incorporating root turnover, distribution within the plant, and recycling of absorbed species

Understanding the movement of cations in soil, particularly trace metals, is required in many applications such as phytoremediation and pollution control. A dynamic mechanistic model has been developed to describe the long‐term root uptake of a surface‐applied, strongly adsorbed, pollutant metal cation, such as radiocaesium, from soil. It consists of two submodels. The first calculates uptake per unit root length at a local scale over a root's lifetime, for various initial conditions. The second calculates cumulative uptake at a whole‐plant scale for the entire rooting depth as a function of time. The model takes into account the renewal of roots which are considered to have a limited lifetime. Root density may be a function of soil depth and a proportion of roots need not contribute to uptake. Recycling from decaying, or grazed, roots and shoots is considered. Simulations show that removal of cations from soil is exaggerated unless some recycling by roots or shoots is considered or the entire root length does not contribute to uptake. Because of root turnover, uptake is not rapidly limited by diffusive flux of the cation from the bulk soil solution to the solution–root interface. Uptake is very sensitive to root architecture and plant physiology.     

不同基质对平邑甜茶幼树生长、根系形态与营养吸收的影响

采用盆栽方式,探讨了栽培于腐熟羊粪、沙土、轻粘土中的平邑甜茶[Malus hupehensis(Pamp) Rehd] 幼树的生长、根系形态与营养吸收的特性。结果显示,羊粪处理平邑甜茶幼树新梢生长量最大,主根和侧根粗长、侧根多,对磷、钙及铁的吸收能力较低;沙土处理的新梢生长量最小,侧根细及少,对磷、钾、钙、铁及锌等元素的吸收能力强;粘土处理的新梢生长量和根系特征参数居于羊粪和沙土处理之间。沙土施羊粪后,平邑甜茶幼树新梢生长量增大,主根增粗、增长,侧根增多且粗长,对磷、钾、钙、铁及锌等营养元素的吸收能力明显下降;而粘土施羊粪,植株叶片增多,主根粗度及长度降低,二级侧根增多、增粗,对钾的吸收能力提高。     

Der Einfluß von Bodenart,Durchlüftung des Bodens,N-Ernährung und Rhizosphärenflora auf die Morphologie des seminalen Wurzelsystems von Mais

Influence of soil type, soil aeration, nitrogen supply and rhizosphere flora on the morphology of the seminal root system of maize The influence of the soil type (quartz sand – humous loamy sandy soil), soil aeration, nitrogen supply and rhizosphere flora on the morphology of the seminal root system of maize plants grown in pot culture was investigated. The morphological parameters of number, length, diameter and root hair formation (both length and density) of the main and the lateral roots were determined in addition to the total root length and number and the lateral root density. 1. The biomass production of the shoot and root system was nearly identical in both soils. The total root length growth, however, was enhanced in the sandy soil due to the stimulated formation of first order lateral roots. This increase was correlated with a decrease in the mean diameter and root hair length of the main and lateral roots. 2. A decreased O₂-supply to the soil resulted in a drastic reduction of root biomass, which was correlated, however, with a (relative) increase in total root length (due to the stimulation of the length growth of the first order lateral roots). The root hair length, on the other hand, was reduced under O₂-deficiency. 3. Reduced N-supply resulted in a decrease of the shoot/root-ratio with both substrates which could be ascribed to the enhanced formation and length of the first order lateral roots. 4. The presence of soil microorganisms in quartz sand culture resulted in a reduction of shoot biomass. In comparison with the sterile control culture the total length of the main roots was retarded, the main and lateral roots were more slender and root hair formation was reduced. 5. The experimental results show that the lateral root system demonstrates a significantly greater plasticity than does the main root system.     

山西土石山区3种草本植物根拉拨特性

为了解山西省土石山区固土护坡草本植物根系拉拔特性,筛选拉拔力优势草本植物物种进行水土流失防治,通过开展根系原位拉拔力学试验,研究了3种典型草本植物香根草（Vetiveria zizanioides L.）、百喜草（Paspalum notatum Flugge）、黑麦草（Lolium perenne L.）根系拉拔力随根径和土层深度的变化规律。结果显示:3种草本植物根系拉拔力随着根径的增大而增加,且拉拔力与根径之间满足幂函数关系;整体上,根系拉拔力从大到小顺序表现为香根草 > 黑麦草 > 百喜草,而且三者之间差异显著;但在D≤0.4 mm和D>0.4 mm两个根径组下,黑麦草均表现出较好的拉拔力性能。在0—10 cm,10—20 cm两个土层间,香根草和百喜草两种植物根系拉拔力性能相似,而黑麦草单根拉拔力在表层土壤发挥效果优于下层土壤。从单根拉拔力方面出发,黑麦草在3种植物中可优先考虑用于固持浅表层土壤。试验探究了草本植物单根在不同根径组下和土层深度下的抗拔性能,研究结果可为山西省土石山区水土保持植物措施草本植物物种选择提供理论依据。     

布根方式及根系径级对根土复合体抗剪性能的影响

以沙地柏根系及其土壤所构成的根土复合体为研究对象,通过根土复合体的室内直剪试验,研究了沙地柏根的不同径级、不同布置方式对根土复合体抗剪性能的影响。结果表明,在不同法向应力作用下,有根系存在的根土复合体抗剪强度均明显高于无根扰动土的抗剪强度。在根土复合体中,垂直存在的根系对提高土体抗剪强度的贡献大于水平存在的根系。在所含根数一致的情况下,根土复合体的抗剪强度并不与所含根系径级的大小成正比,而是随着根系径级的增大呈现递增—回落—反弹的趋势。该试验的研究可为今后沙地柏水土保持树种的栽植提供一定的技术参数及理论支撑。     

多花木蓝根系与土体界面摩阻特征

为研究灌木植物根系的固土护坡力学效应,探讨根系与土体间相互作用的特性。以多花木蓝为供试植物,进行植物根系切片并计算根系的表面凹凸度,选取0~0.5,0.5~1.0,1.0~1.5,1.5~2.0mm 4种粒径的粉质黏土,在不同的土体含水率和根径条件下,制备根土复合体扰动试样,进行单根抗拔摩阻试验和直剪摩阻试验,探讨土体含水率、植物根径以及土体粒径对根土界面摩阻特性的影响。结果表明:多花木蓝根系的表面凹凸度随根径变化无显著性差异,根系的拉拔剪应力集中在17.36~32.76kPa,而根土界面的摩擦系数为0.10~0.20;根系拉拔剪应力和根土界面摩擦系数随土体粒径和土体含水率的增加逐渐下降;土体含水率和土体粒径愈低,根系形态特征对根系的拉拔剪应力和根土界面摩擦系数的影响愈显著。研究结果对分析根土界面摩阻特性的影响因素,以及利用灌木植物提高边坡土体结构稳定和防治水土流失、土壤侵蚀等地质灾害具有重大的指导意义。     

Influence of soil strength on root growth: experiments and analysis using a critical-state model

Roots grow thicker in compacted soil, even though it requires greater force for a large object to penetrate soil than it does for a small one. We examined the advantage of thickening in terms of the stresses around a root penetrating with constant shape, rather than the stresses around an expanding cylinder or sphere, as has been studied previously. We combined experiments and simulations of the stresses around roots growing in compacted soils. We measured the diameter of pea roots growing in sandy loam and clay loam at four different densities, and the critical‐state properties of the soils. At a penetration resistance of about 1 MPa the diameter of the roots in the sandy loam was about 40% greater than that at 0.7 MPa, and at 2 MPa it was about 60% greater. In the clay loam, there was less thickening – about 10% greater at 1 MPa and about 20% greater at 1.5 MPa. The maximum axial stresses were predicted using a critical‐state finite‐element model to be at the very tip of the root cap. When there was friction between the root and the soil, shear stresses were predicted with smaller values at the tip than just behind the tip. When the interface between the soil and the root was assumed to be frictionless, there were by definition no shear stresses. In the frictionless case the advantage of root thickening on relieving peak stress at the root tip was diminished. The axial and shear stresses were predicted to be smaller in the clay loam than in the sandy loam and may explain why the roots did not thicken in this soil although its resistance to penetration was similar. Our results suggest that the local values of axial and shear stresses experienced by the root near its tip may be as important in constraining root growth as the total penetration resistance.     

沙地柏根系径级对根土复合体抗剪强度的影响

采用应变控制式直剪仪,通过对含不同沙地柏根系径级的扰动土进行室内直剪试验,分析研究根土复合体的抗剪性能。结果表明沙地柏根系的加入,增强了土体的抗剪强度,且根土复合体的抗剪强度符合库伦定律;当所含根系径级小于某个极限值时,根土复合体的抗剪强度随着径级的增大而增大,当超过这一极限值,则随着所含根系径级的增大,其抗剪强度逐渐减小,随着根系径级的逐步增大,由于根自身抵抗土体剪切变形能力增强,使得根土复合体的抗剪强度值开始回升;一定竖向荷载下,根土截面比△过小,对复合体抗剪性能影响微弱;根土截面比过大,根系与土壤胶结力降低,对抗剪强度产生负影响,因此,存在一个最佳根土截面比,在此比值附近,根土复合体的抗剪强度达到最大。本研究可为沙地柏在作为水土保持树种栽植方面提供理论依据。