Regulation of the different chromatin states of autosomes and X chromosomes in the germ line of C. elegans

The Maternal-Effect Sterile (MES) proteins are essential for germline viability in Caenorhabditis elegans. Here, we report that MES-4, a SET-domain protein, binds to the autosomes but not to the X chromosomes. MES-2, MES-3, and MES-6 are required to exclude MES-4 and markers of active chromatin from the X chromosomes. These findings strengthen the emerging view that in the C. elegans germ line, the X chromosomes differ in chromatin state from the autosomes and are generally silenced. We propose that all four MES proteins participate in X-chromosome silencing, and that the role of MES-4 is to exclude repressors from the autosomes, thus enabling efficient repression of the Xs.     

Epigenetic aspects of X-chromosome dosage compensation

The X chromosomes of mammals and fruit flies exhibit unusual properties that have evolved to deal with the different dosages of X-linked genes in males (XY) and females (XX). The X chromosome dosage-compensation mechanisms discovered in these species are evolutionarily unrelated, but exhibit surprising parallels in their regulatory strategies. These features include the importance of noncoding RNAs, and epigenetic spreading of chromatin-modifying activities. Sex chromosomes have posed a fascinating puzzle for biologists. The dissimilar organization, gene content, and regulation of the X and Y chromosomes are thought to reflect selective forces acting on original pairs of identical chromosomes (1-3). The result in many organisms is a male-specific Y chromosome that has lost most of its original genetic content, and a difference in dosage of the X chromosome in males (XY) and females (XX).     

Regulation of X-chromosome counting by Tsix and Xite sequences

In mammals, X-inactivation establishes X-chromosome dosage parity between males and females. How X-chromosome counting regulates this process remains elusive, because neither the hypothesized inactivation "blocking factor" nor the required cis-elements have been defined. Here, a mouse knockout and transgenic analysis identified DNA sequences within the noncoding Tsix and Xite genes as numerators. Homozygous deficiency of Tsix resulted in "chaotic choice" and a variable number of inactive X's, whereas overdosage of Tsix/Xite inhibited X-inactivation. Thus, counting was affected by specific Tsix/Xite mutations, suggesting that counting is genetically separable from but molecularly coupled to choice. The mutations affect XX and XY cells differently, demonstrating that counting and choice are regulated not by one "blocking factor," but by both a "blocking" and a "competence" factor.     

苹果LysM基因家族的生物信息学及表达分析

【目的】在苹果全基因组中鉴定LysM,通过基因聚类分析、染色体定位、结构分析以及组织表达分析,为苹果LysM的功能研究和利用奠定基础。【方法】利用已公布的苹果基因组数据库GDR和FEM-IASMA,鉴定苹果LysM基因家族成员,并对其进行编号。MdLysM蛋白氨基酸序列的基本信息通过ExPASy Proteomics Server进行预测,亚细胞定位的预测利用WoLF PSORT进行。采用MEGA5软件构建了进化树。应用Plaza程序绘制基因结构,染色体定位信息取自GMDO,鉴定出的39个基因的染色体定位作图使用MapInspector完成;另外,通过实时荧光定量RT-PCR对各基因的组织表达特性进行分析,差异显著性分析通过SPSS完成。【结果】系统地鉴定了39个苹果LysM家族成员。这39个MdLysM蛋白包含241至1 119个不等的氨基酸残基,等电点分布在4.70-9.60范围内。亚细胞定位结果表明,苹果LysM蛋白在细胞核、细胞质、叶绿体、液泡、胞外基质中均有分布。根据聚类分析可将这些基因分为A、B和C 3组,且A组又可进一步被分为Ⅰ、Ⅱ 和 Ⅲ 3个亚族,说明它们的功能可能已经发生了分化。MdLysM蛋白结构域的预测结果及基因结构分析结果均与进化树聚类结果吻合。染色体定位表明,MdLysM分布在苹果17条染色体中的13条上,且此家族的基因在13条染色体上的分布为非均匀的,其中以4号染色体上分布最多,达到了9个,而1、5、7和8号染色体上则未见分布。在苹果LysM家族中鉴定出了10对和1组旁系同源基因,MdLysM基因间存在串联重复和片段重复,它们是苹果LysM家族扩张的主要动力。对39个基因在根、茎、叶、花、果5个组织器官中的实时荧光定量RT-PCR结果显示,5个器官中均能检测到MdLysM的表达,这些基因的组织表达模式具有多样性,表明它们在不同组织中可能扮演不同的角色。【结论】苹果LysM基因家族拥有39个成员,进化上可分为3组,基因结构的复杂程度与进化树聚类存在联系。39个基因分布于13条染色体上,存在重复事件。这些信息为今后苹果LysM基因家族的功能研究奠定了基础。     

Polycomb proteins targeted by a short repeat RNA to the mouse X chromosome

To equalize X-chromosome dosages between the sexes, the female mammal inactivates one of her two X chromosomes. X-chromosome inactivation (XCI) is initiated by expression of Xist, a 17-kb noncoding RNA (ncRNA) that accumulates on the X in cis. Because interacting factors have not been isolated, the mechanism by which Xist induces silencing remains unknown. We discovered a 1.6-kilobase ncRNA (RepA) within Xist and identified the Polycomb complex, PRC2, as its direct target. PRC2 is initially recruited to the X by RepA RNA, with Ezh2 serving as the RNA binding subunit. The antisense Tsix RNA inhibits this interaction. RepA depletion abolishes full-length Xist induction and trimethylation on lysine 27 of histone H3 of the X. Likewise, PRC2 deficiency compromises Xist up-regulation. Therefore, RepA, together with PRC2, is required for the initiation and spread of XCI. We conclude that a ncRNA cofactor recruits Polycomb complexes to their target locus.     

Site-specific X-chromosome rearrangements from hybrid dysgenesis in Drosophila melanogaster

When the germ line of Drosophila males is destabilized by a syndrome known as hybrid dysgenesis, X-chromosome rearrangements are found in up to 10 percent of the gametes produced. Some of these aberrations are simple inversions, but many are complex multibreak rearrangements. Furthermore, most of the breakpoints fall into a few highly localized positions on the chromosome. These positions are mostly at points of intercalary heterochromatin and may vary from one strain to the next. the results suggest that they may represent points of insertion of mobile DNA sequences.     

番茄LBD基因家族的全基因组序列鉴定及其进化和表达分析

【目的】从番茄全基因组中鉴定LBD基因,并进行基因进化、基因结构、染色体定位以及组织表达和诱导表达分析,为番茄LBD基因的功能研究与利用奠定基础。【方法】利用番茄基因组数据库,通过生物信息学手段,鉴定番茄LBD家族成员;采用MEGA5软件进行系统进化树分析;通过perl程序、MapDRAW及GSDS工具进行基因结构及染色体定位分析;利用已有的番茄芯片数据进行组织表达谱和基因表达响应分析。【结果】系统分析鉴定了 46 个番茄LBD 家族基因,根据基因结构及系统进化分析将其分成class I与class II两类,细分为5个亚家族（Ia、Ib、Ic、Id与II）。基因定位表明,12 条染色体中的 10 条均有LBD 基因,该基因家族的分布具有广泛性。各个发育阶段表达谱的分析结果表明,LBD 家族基因具有不同的组织表达模式,在各个发育时期均有LBD 基因的表达。基因响应分析发现,不同LBD基因响应不同的外界信号。【结论】通过全基因组分析,番茄LBD家族基因包括 46 个成员,在进化上分为两大类,5 个亚家族,分布于 10 条染色体上,组织表达模式及基因响应具有多样性。这些信息为番茄LBD基因家族的功能分析奠定了基础。     

苹果OFP基因家族的全基因组鉴定与非生物逆境表达分析

【目的】从苹果全基因组中鉴定OFP(OVATE family protein)家族蛋白成员,对其进行基因结构特征、组织表达及非生物逆境等系统分析,为研究苹果OFP的潜在功能提供理论基础。【方法】利用生物信息学手段,在苹果基因组数据库中筛选鉴定OFP基因家族成员;利用MEGA5.0软件进行系统进化树分析;通过Map Draw和GSDS等生物信息学工具分析基因结构及染色体定位;根据已有的苹果芯片数据库结果进行OFP基因表达谱分析;利用实时荧光定量PCR技术检测13个Md OFP的组织表达和诱导表达情况。【结果】苹果OFP基因家族包含28个成员,根据系统进化关系将其分为4组,分别包含13、6、4和5个成员;苹果中13条染色体上均有OFP基因分布,其中第12条染色体最多,有6个Md OFP成员,该基因家族的分布具有广泛性;芯片表达谱分析结果表明该类基因家族在花、果实和叶中的表达量较高,q RT-PCR验证结果较一致;经Na Cl和PEG处理后,苹果根部与地上部呈现出不同程度的响应差异,Na Cl处理明显诱导两组织中Md OFP04和Md OFP20的表达,Md OFP01、Md OFP12和Md OFP18的表达在根部与地上部组织则相反;温度胁迫明显影响Md OFPs的表达量,其中Md OFP04和Md OFP17经高温和低温胁迫处理后均明显上调。【结论】苹果OFP基因家族共有28个成员,分布于13条染色体上,该家族成员呈现出不同的组织表达模式和胁迫响应模式。     

Recruitment and spreading of the C. elegans dosage compensation complex along X chromosomes

To achieve X-chromosome dosage compensation, organisms must distinguish X chromosomes from autosomes. We identified multiple, cis-acting regions that recruit the Caenorhabditis elegans dosage compensation complex (DCC) through a search for regions of X that bind the complex when detached from X. The DCC normally assembles along the entire X chromosome, but not all detached regions recruit the complex, despite having genes known to be dosage compensated on the native X. Thus, the DCC binds first to recruitment sites, then spreads to neighboring X regions to accomplish chromosome-wide gene repression. From a large chromosomal domain, we defined a 793-base pair fragment that functions in vivo as an X-recognition element to recruit the DCC.     

A chicken transferrin gene in transgenic mice escapes X-chromosome inactivation

Mammalian X-chromosome inactivation involves a coordinate shutting down of physically linked genes. Several proposed models require the presence of specific sequences near genes to permit the spread of inactivation into these regions. If such models are correct, one might predict that heterologous genes transferred onto the X chromosome might lack the appropriate signal sequences and therefore escape inactivation. To determine whether a foreign gene inserted into the X chromosome is subject to inactivation, transgenic mice harboring 11 copies of the complete, 17-kilobase chicken transferrin gene on the X chromosome were used. Male mice hemizygous for this insert were bred with females bearing Searle's translocation, an X-chromosome rearrangement that is always active in heterozygous females (the unrearranged X chromosome is inactive). Female offspring bearing the Searle's translocation and the chicken transferrin gene had the same amount of chicken transferrin messenger RNA in liver as did transgenic male mice or transgenic female mice lacking the Searle's chromosome. This result shows that the inserted gene is not subject to X-chromosome inactivation and suggests that the inactivation process cannot spread over 187 kilobases of DNA in the absence of specific signal sequences required for inactivation.     

葡萄STS基因家族的鉴定与表达分析

白藜芦醇等芪类化合物与人类健康和植物抗逆性密切相关,芪合成酶(stilbene synthases,STS)是合成该类化合物的关键酶。为进一步明确葡萄中STS基因家族的表达特性,利用生物信息学技术,筛选了葡萄中的STS基因,并分析了其在果实生长过程和不同时期叶片中的表达模式。结果表明:葡萄全基因中共鉴定出48个STS基因,这些基因串联分布在10和16号染色体,其中32个STS基因能编码完整的氨基酸序列,且编码的氨基酸序列均为392 bp。根据氨基酸序列特性,可以将这些STS基因分为3类。在葡萄果实生长过程中,STS基因家族成员呈现出多种表达模式,但大多数STS基因在花后20~40 d和花后70~80 d的表达水平较高。大部分STS基因在葡萄叶片成熟阶段或衰老阶段表达水平较高。     

Temperature sex reversal implies sex gene dosage in a reptile

Sex in reptiles is determined by genes on sex chromosomes or by incubation temperature. Previously these two modes were thought to be distinct, yet we show that high incubation temperatures reverse genotypic males (ZZ) to phenotypic females in a lizard with ZZ and ZW sex chromosomes. Thus, the W chromosome is not necessary for female differentiation. Sex determination is probably via a dosage-sensitive male-determining gene on the Z chromosome that is inactivated by extreme temperatures. Our data invite a novel hypothesis for the evolution of temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) and suggest that sex chromosomes may exist in many TSD reptiles.     

大豆LEA基因家族全基因组鉴定、分类和表达

 【目的】鉴定大豆全基因组中的LEA家族基因,对其进行定位、分类以及组织表达分析,为植物LEA基因的功能研究与利用提供基础。【方法】利用大豆基因组数据库,通过生物信息学手段,鉴定并获得大豆LEA家族基因的全序列、定位和拷贝数信息;通过序列比对进行进化和分类分析;利用大豆发育表达芯片数据、NCBI中UniGene的EST表达数据进行组织表达谱分析。【结果】系统地分析鉴定了36个大豆的LEA家族基因,根据结构域的差异和系统发育分析将这些LEA基因分成8个亚家族。基因定位分析结果表明,这些基因分布于大豆的16条染色体上,启动子分析表明,几乎全部LEA基因的启动子区含有逆境反应顺式作用元件。各个发育阶段表达谱的分析结果表明,多数成员至少在一个组织中表达,10个差异表达的基因中有5个在种子发育时期优势表达,另外5个在其它部位优势表达。【结论】通过全基因组扫描,获得大豆基因组的36个LEA家族基因,它们分属于8个不同的亚家族,分布于16条大豆染色体上,启动子区含有逆境相关顺式作用元件,基因表达具有一定特异性。     

Mining of candidate genes for grape berry cracking using a genome-wide association study

Fruit cracking is a common phenomenon during the growth and development of horticultural crops that seriously affects fruit yield and quality. However, there are few studies on the mining of candidate genes related to berry cracking. To better understand the genetic basis of grape berry cracking, we conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of grape varieties. Based on the mixed linear model (MLM), we detected five single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) loci associated with berry-cracking index and two SNP loci associated with berry-cracking type in two years. These loci were mainly distributed on four chromosomes, namely 1, 2, 3, and 18, and were associated with ten unique candidate berry-cracking genes. The gene expression patterns indicated that the candidate genes in the susceptible berry-cracking variety were more abundant than in the resistant berry-cracking variety. Grape berry-cracking is a complex trait controlled by multiple genes, mainly including genes involved in polygalacturonase, copper transporter, and receptor-like proteins. The high expression of the candidate berry-cracking genes may promote the occurrence of berry cracking, so the present study helps to further elucidate the genetic mechanism of berry cracking.     

Isolation of sequences that span the fragile X and identification of a fragile X-related CpG island

Yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) were obtained from a 550-kilobase region that contains three probes previously mapped as very close to the locus of the fragile X syndrome. These YACs spanned the fragile site in Xq27.3 as shown by fluorescent in situ hybridization. An internal 200-kilobase segment contained four chromosomal breakpoints generated by induction of fragile X expression. A single CpG island was identified in the cloned region between markers DXS463 and DXS465 that appears methylated in mentally retarded fragile X males, but not in nonexpressing male carriers of the mutation nor in normal males. This CpG island may indicate the presence of a gene involved in the clinical phenotype of the syndrome.     

玉米Dof转录因子家族的全基因组鉴定与分析

【目的】全基因组水平鉴定并解析玉米Dof（DNA binding with one finger）基因家族。【方法】基于玉米V3基因组数据鉴定玉米Dof基因家族,并从基因的结构、系统发育关系、染色体的位置分布、玉米不同组织和不同生理发育阶段基因的表达谱以及在充足氮（sufficient nitrogen,SN）和低氮（limiting nitrogen,LN）条件下V3期叶组织基因的差异表达5个方面分析玉米Dof基因家族。【结果】玉米参考基因组中存在46个Dof结构域基因,命名为ZmV3Dof1-ZmV3Dof46。通过系统发育关系和序列相似性将该基因家族分为8个亚类（Subgroup）S1-S8,每个亚类有3-8个Dof基因。通过分析该家族染色体分布,发现玉米10条染色体,除Chr.9外,均有Dof基因的分布,其中,在Chr.1上分布最为密集,有12个ZmV3Dofs;在Chr.5和Chr.3上分布次之,分别为8和7个ZmV3Dofs;在其他染色体上则分布较少,此外,Dofs在Chr.1的底部、Chr.5的顶部和底部分布密度相对较高。表达谱分析结果表明,Dof基因家族成员在不同组织及不同发育阶段均有差异表达,预示不同Dof基因功能的多样性以及在植物发育过程中扮演着不同角色,且同一亚类Dof基因表达模式存在一定程度的相似性。此外,玉米Dof基因家族对氮响应较为敏感,充足氮（SN）和低氮（LN）条件下,V3期叶组织基因的RNAseq表达结果显示35个Dof基因在2种氮处理下表达量存在差异,其中13个基因表达量差异较大。值得注意的是21个Dof基因在低氮处理下表达量上调,其中8个基因只在低氮条件下表达。【结论】基于最新版基因组数据鉴定玉米在自交系B73基因组中存在46个Dof基因,Dof基因家族成员参与玉米不同生理发育过程中,部分基因可能在氮代谢调控中发挥积极作用。     

Specific expression of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in transgenic mice

Two transgenic mice were obtained that contain in their chromosomes the complete hepatitis B virus (HBV) genome except for the core gene. These mice secrete particles of HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) in the serum. In one mouse, HBV DNA sequences that had integrated at two different sites were shown to segregate independently in the first filial generation (F1) and only one of the sequences allowed expression of the surface antigen. Among these animals the males produced five to ten times more HBsAg than the females. A 2.1-kilobase messenger RNA species comigrating with the major surface gene messenger RNA is expressed specifically in the liver in the two original mice. The results suggest that the HBV sequences introduced into the mice are able to confer a tissue-specific expression to the S gene. In addition, the HBV transgenic mice represent a new model for the chronic carrier state of hepatitis B virus infection.     

Gene regulation in the third dimension

Analysis of the spatial organization of chromosomes reveals complex three-dimensional networks of chromosomal interactions. These interactions affect gene expression at multiple levels, including long-range control by distant enhancers and repressors, coordinated expression of genes, and modification of epigenetic states. Major challenges now include deciphering the mechanisms by which loci come together and understanding the functional consequences of these often transient associations.