Size distribution, complexing capacity, and stability of phosphate-metal-humic complexes

Size distribution, maximum complexing ability, and stability constants for phosphate-metal-humic (PO43--M-HA) complexes involving two trivalent (Fe and Al) and five divalent metal (M) bridges (Zn, Cu, Mn, Ca, and Mg) were investigated at the pH values 4, 6, and 8. Results highlighted the existing competition between metal-humic acid (M-HA) aggregation and the formation of PO43--M-HA complexes. However, the fact that only a very low fraction of complexed metal is involved in PO43- fixation seems to be related to the existence of specific electronic and/or steric requirements in the binding site in the metal-humic complex. The importance of the ionic form of phosphate (H2PO4- or HPO42-) and the involvement of phenolic and especially carboxylic groups in the phosphate binding are discussed. Finally, the order of stability obtained for PO43--M-HA complexes was similar to that of M-HA complexes. This result suggests that PO43--M-HA might play a significant role in the dynamics of phosphorus in certain soil types.     

田间陈化生物质炭提高稻田土壤团聚体稳定性和磷素利用率

  【目的】  生物质炭因其巨大的比表面积和稳定的结构而被用作土壤改良剂。然而关于田间陈化生物质炭对土壤肥力和养分利用效率影响的研究相对缺乏。通过定位试验,分析田间不同陈化年限的生物质炭对水稻产量和养分利用效率的影响。  【方法】  田间定位试验设在江苏南京,供试土壤为粘质水稻土。共设置5个处理,分别是不施磷肥对照 (CK)、施用磷肥 (P) 及磷肥配施新鲜生物质炭 (PB_0y,2017年施入)、2年陈化生物质炭 (PB_2y,2015年施入) 和5年陈化生物质炭 (PB_5y,2012年施入)。在水稻收获后采集土壤样品进行团聚体分级,测定大团聚体 (250～2000 μm)、微团聚体 (53～250 μm)、粉粒 (2～53 μm)、粘粒 (< 2 μm) 含量以有效磷含量和基本理化性质,同时测定水稻产量和磷素利用效率。  【结果】  与P处理相比,PB_2y和PB_5y处理显著提高250～2000 μm大团聚体的比例 (69.2%～107.8%) ,降低2～53 μm粉粒 (13.1%～14.7%) 和 < 2 μm粘粒 (6.9%～41.9%) 的比例,而PB_0y与P处理相比各粒级比例均无显著差异;PB_0y、PB_2y和PB_5y处理土壤有机碳 (SOC) 提高了18.5%～58.5%,全磷含量提高了5.7%～17.1%,但2～53 μm粒级SOC含量无显著差异。与P处理相比,PB_0y处理对水稻产量和磷素利用效率影响不显著,PB_2y和PB_5y处理均可显著提高水稻产量 (13.7%和16.3%) 和磷素利用率 (35.4%和45.5%)。由结构方程模型可知,陈化生物质炭 (PB_2y和PB_5y) 通过改善土壤养分状况 (SOC、全磷含量、碳磷比等) 和土壤结构 (250～2000 μm大团聚体比例增加),保证了水稻产量和磷储量。  【结论】  与新鲜生物质炭相比,陈化生物质炭可有效增加250～2000 μm大团聚体比例以及土壤有效磷和全磷的保护,从而促进植物对磷的吸收利用,达到增加产量和磷素利用效率的目的。5年陈化生物质炭的改良效果好于2年陈化生物质炭。     

Constitution of stable artificial oil bodies with triacylglycerol, phospholipid, and caleosin

Seed oil bodies are lipid storage organelles of 0.5-2 microm in diameter and comprise a triacylglycerol matrix shielded by a monolayer of phospholipids and proteins. These proteins include abundant structural proteins, oleosins, and at least two minor proteins termed caleosin and steroleosin. This study examined if artificial oil bodies (AOBs) composed of triacylglycerol and phospholipid could be stabilized by oleosin, caleosin, or steroleosin. Our results showed that stabilization effects could be realized by oleosin or caleosin but not by steroleosin. The sizes of the AOBs constituted with oleosin (0.5-2 microm) or caleosin (50-200 nm) were similar to or 10 times smaller than those of the native oil bodies. Recombinant caleosin expressed in Escherichia coli also encapsulated AOBs with a size, topology, and stability comparable to those encapsulated with native caleosin. A proteinase K digestion indicated that caleosin anchored the AOBs via its central hydrophobic domain of approximately 4 kDa. Isoelectrofocusing revealed that the isoelectric point of the caleosin-stabilized AOBs was pH 4.0. Aggregation of AOBs was observed at a pH lower than 4.5; thus, their stability and integrity were presumably contributed by surface caleosin via electronegative repulsion and steric hindrance. The caleosin-stabilized AOBs were thermostable up to 70 degrees C and potentially useful for biotechnological applications.     

Yield stability and fertilizer efficiency of long-term triple cereal cropping in paddy fields of China

Triple cereal cropping is an important grain production pattern which has been adopted on a vast area of paddy fields in Southern China. A long-term triple cereal cropping (barely with double-cropped rice) experiment has been conducted for 18 years (1974–1991) in paddy fields on the southern coastal plain of Zhejiang. The results showed that long-term triple cereal cropping has a high and stable grain yield level if certain improved crop varieties are used. Furthermore, the use of organic manure to reduce yield fluctuations and promote N-use efficiency was evaluated.     

添加腐植酸与生化抑制剂的稳定性增效尿素在黑土中的施用效果

研究同时添加生化抑制剂与生物刺激素腐植酸的稳定性增效尿素在黑土中的施用效果,明确在黑土中生物刺激素腐植酸与生化抑制剂结合对尿素态氮转化的调控作用,为研究适宜黑土的生物刺激素腐植酸与生化抑制剂结合的稳定性增效尿素专用配方提供理论依据。试验以不施氮肥(CK)及施用普通尿素(N)为对照,在尿素中分别添加腐植酸(H)、脲酶抑制剂N-丁基硫代磷酰三胺(NBPT)、硝化抑制剂3,4-二甲基吡唑磷酸盐(DMPP)、2-氯-6(三氯甲基)-吡啶(CP)以及各生化抑制剂与腐植酸组合,共9个处理。通过盆栽试验,监测不同处理的土壤铵态氮、硝态氮、玉米生物学指标、产量,计算土壤硝化抑制率、玉米籽粒吸氮量、玉米植株总吸氮量及尿素肥料氮利用率等指标。结果表明,相比单独施用尿素肥料,腐植酸及生化抑制剂NBPT、DMPP、CP的添加均能显著提高玉米产量、吸氮量、氮肥利用效率等,同时对土壤铵态氮及硝态氮含量有显著影响(P<0.05)。施用添加腐植酸与NBPT尿素处理相比单独添加NBPT尿素处理显著提高了玉米苗期黑土硝化抑制率、玉米株高及叶片叶绿素含量,分别提高14.03%、6.31%、3.22%,但玉米产量、植株吸氮量、氮肥利用效率、玉米茎粗及叶面积均有所下降。施用添加腐植酸与DMPP的尿素处理相比单独添加DMPP尿素处理的玉米株高、叶绿素含量分别提高7.97%、20.17%,显著降低玉米苗期黑土硝化抑制率、玉米产量、经济系数、籽粒吸氮量、叶面积,同时植株总吸氮量、氮肥利用率及茎粗有所降低(P<0.05)。施用添加腐植酸与CP的尿素处理相比单独添加CP尿素处理显著提高玉米产量、叶绿素含量、总吸氮量、氮肥利用效率(P<0.05),玉米株高、玉米籽粒吸氮量也均有提高,但玉米茎粗及叶面积有所下降(P<0.05)。在黑土中,施用添加腐植酸与CP的尿素处理可以提高玉米产量、植株吸氮量、玉米株高、叶片叶绿素含量和肥料利用率。施用添加NBPT、DMPP与腐植酸配合的尿素处理降低玉米产量、植株吸氮量、氮肥利用效率,不利于玉米产量的增加及肥料利用率的提高。在黑土玉米种植区,氮肥管理建议将腐植酸与CP结合制成新型高效稳定性增效尿素肥料施用,有利于玉米的增产及尿素肥料利用率的提高,避免将腐植酸与NBPT、DMPP配合使用。     

Processing and cooking effects on lipid content and stability of alpha-linolenic acid in spaghetti containing ground flaxseed

Research was conducted to determine the effect of processing and cooking on the content of hexane-extractable lipid and the stability of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) in spaghetti fortified with ground flaxseed. Lipid content, ALA, and free fatty acids (FFA) were lower in dried spaghetti samples than in the original semolina-flaxseed mixture. The data indicate that the decline in lipid, ALA, and FFA contents occurred during the extrusion process. In contrast, conjugated diene levels were greater in dried spaghetti than in the corresponding premix. Conjugated diene level was similar for spaghetti samples dried using low- or high-temperature drying cycles, and was lower in cooked than in uncooked spaghetti. The low levels of FFA and conjugated diene indicate that ALA remained stable during processing and cooking of spaghetti fortified with ground flaxseed.     

Resource use efficiency of field-grown sunflower, sorghum, wheat and chickpea: I. Radiation use efficiency

Radiation use efficiency () is a crop parameter widely used in crop simulation models, derived here as the slope of the relationship linking crop carbon gain to cumulative intercepted solar radiation. Our objectives were to: (i) determine of field-grown sunflower, sorghum, wheat and chickpea, at three levels of aggregation—day-time net assimilation (A), daily net carbon gain as difference between A and night-time dark respiration (R) and biomass; (ii) assess the robustness of parameter in terms of ability to discriminate between C₃ and C₄ species, pre- and post-anthesis and impact of nitrogen status; (iii) evaluate the opportunity to normalize for climate. Field experiments were conducted in 1998 and 1999 in southern Italy. All crops were well watered. Sunflower and sorghum had two nitrogen application treatments, wheat only one and chickpea had no added nitrogen. Daily intercepted solar radiation was derived from measurements of daily incident solar radiation and the percentage of mid-day light interception. Closed-system canopy chambers monitored canopy gas-exchange rates. , expressed in terms of A, A − R or above-ground biomass, was linear over the entire growth cycle of sorghum and wheat, and up to anthesis in sunflower and chickpea, independent of temperature, vapour pressure deficit and radiation regimes. In sunflower, deviation from linearity was observed after anthesis, due to higher carbon cost in yielding oil seeds. No conclusions could be drawn for post-anthesis chickpea due to the interruption of the experiment caused by a thunderstorm. Overall results showed a great variability in values, independently of classes of species (C₄ and C₃), crops and nitrogen treatments. This indicates that the robustness of to predict biomass productivity in crop simulation models is constrained. Attempts to normalize by vapour pressure deficit (D), for reducing its variability due to climate and overlaps between crops failed.     

Preparation, characteristics, and stability of glutathione-loaded nanoparticles

The aim of this study was to investigate the characteristics and oxidative stability of chitosan-glutathione conjugate (CS-GSH) and CS-GSH nanoparticles (CS-GSH NPs) to explore the potentials of these nanoparticle systems for GSH delivery. CS-GSH was synthesized using a radical polymerization method, and CS-GSH NP was prepared by ionic gelation of CS-GSH with sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP). The sizes of CS-GSH NPs significantly increased with increasing CS-GSH concentration and CS-GSH/TPP ratio. The entrapment efficiency (EE) significantly increased with increasing CS-GSH concentration and significantly decreased with increasing CS-GSH/TPP ratio. The immobilized GSH could be protected against oxidation compared to free GSH. The thiol content in the nanoencapsulated GSH was more effectively maintained than those in free GSH and CS-GSH, regardless of the presence of oxidative stress-inducing agents. These results suggest that CS-GSH NP can be used to enhance the oxidative stability of GSH.     

Impact of electrostatic interactions on formation and stability of emulsions containing oil droplets coated by beta-lactoglobulin-pectin complexes

Interfacial protein-polysaccharide complexes can be used to improve the physical stability of oil-in-water emulsions. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of ionic strength on the formation and stability of oil-in-water emulsions containing polysaccharide-protein-coated droplets. Emulsions were prepared that contained 0.1 wt % corn oil, 0.05 wt % beta-lactoglobulin, and 0.02 wt % pectin at pH 7. The emulsions were then adjusted to pH 4 to promote electrostatic deposition of the pectin molecules onto the surfaces of the protein-coated droplets. The salt concentration of the aqueous phase (0 or 50 mM NaCl) was adjusted either before or after deposition of the pectin molecules onto the droplet surfaces. We found that stable emulsions containing polysaccharide-protein-coated droplets could be formed when the salt was added after pectin adsorption but not when it was added before pectin adsorption. This phenomenon was attributed to the ability of NaCl to promote droplet flocculation in the protein-coated droplets so that the pectin molecules adsorbed onto the surfaces of flocs rather than individual droplets when salt was added before pectin adsorption. We also found that polysaccharide-protein-coated droplets had a much improved stability to salt-induced flocculation than protein-coated droplets with the same droplet charge (zeta-potential). Theoretical predictions indicated that this was due to the ability of the adsorbed polysaccharide layer to strongly diminish the van der Waals attraction between the droplets.     

Oxidative stability of fish and algae oils containing long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in bulk and in oil-in-water emulsions

The oxidative stability of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-containing fish and algae oils varies widely according to their fatty acid composition, the physical and colloidal states of the lipids, the contents of tocopherols and other antioxidants, and the presence and activity of transition metals. Fish and algal oils were initially much more stable to oxidation in bulk systems than in the corresponding oil-in-water emulsions. The oxidative stability of emulsions cannot, therefore, be predicted on the basis of stability data obtained with bulk long-chain PUFA-containing fish oils and DHA-containing algal oils. The relatively high oxidative stability of an algal oil containing 42% DHA was completely lost after chromatographic purification to remove tocopherols and other antioxidants. Therefore, this evidence does not support the claim that DHA-rich oils from algae are unusually stable to oxidation. Addition of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) prevented oxidation of both fish and algal oil emulsions without added iron and at low iron:EDTA molar concentrations. EDTA, however, promoted the oxidation of the corresponding emulsions that contained high iron:EDTA ratios. Therefore, to be effective as a metal chelator, EDTA must be added at molar concentrations higher than that of iron to inhibit oxidation of foods containing long-chain PUFA from either fish or algae and fortified with iron.     

Effects of cloudiness change on net ecosystem exchange, light use efficiency, and water use efficiency in typical ecosystems of China

As a weather element, clouds can affect CO₂ exchange between terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere by altering environmental conditions, such as solar radiation received on the ground surface, temperature, and moisture. Based on the flux data measured at five typical ecosystems of China during mid-growing season (June-August) from 2003 to 2006, we analyzed the responses of net ecosystem exchange of carbon dioxide (NEE), light use efficiency (LUE, defined as Gross ecosystem photosynthesis (GEP)/Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)), and water use efficiency (WUE, defined as GEP/Evapotranspiration (ET)) to the changes in cloudiness. The five ecological sites included Changbaishan temperate mixed forest (CBS), Dinghushan subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest (DHS), Xishuangbanna tropical rainforest (XSBN), Inner Mongolia semi-arid Leymus chinensis steppe (NMG), and Haibei alpine frigid Potentilla fruticosa shrub (HB). Our analyses show that cloudy sky conditions with cloud index (k_t) values between 0.4 and 0.6 increased NEE, LUE, and WUE of the ecosystems at CBS, DHS, NMG and HB from June to August. The LUE of tropical rainforest at XSBN was higher under cloudy than under clear sky conditions, but NEE and WUE did not decrease significantly under clear sky conditions from June to August. The increase in GEP with increasing diffuse radiation received by ecosystems under cloudy skies was the main reason that caused the increases in LUE and net carbon uptake in forest ecosystem at CBS, DHS, and alpine shrub ecosystem at HB, compared with clear skies. Moreover, for the ecosystem at CBS, DHS, and HB, when sky condition became from clear to cloudy, GEP increased and ET decreased with decreasing VPD, leading to the increase in WUE and NEE under cloudy sky conditions. The decrease in R_e with decreasing temperature and increase in GEP with decreasing VPD under cloudy skies led to the increase in LUE, WUE, and net carbon uptake of semi-arid steppe at NMG, compared to clear skies. These different responses among the five ecosystems are attributable to the differences in canopy characteristics and water conditions. From June to August, the peaks of the k_t frequency distribution in temperate ecosystems (e.g., CBS, NMG, and HB) were larger than 0.5, but they were smaller than 0.4 in subtropical/tropical forest ecosystems (e.g., DHS and XSBN). These results suggest that the pattern of cloudiness during the years from 2003 to 2006 in the five ecosystems was not the best condition for their net carbon uptake. This study highlights the importance of cloudiness factor in the prediction of net carbon absorption in the Asia monsoon region under climate change.     

Surface entrapment of toxic metals from electroplating waste and their possible recovery

Heavy metal ions such as Cr, Ni, Cu, Cd and Zn have been removed from the electroplating waste using Fe(III) hydroxide as adsorbent. The maximum removal of these metal ions (>90%) occurred at pH 8 to 9. Removal of SO ₄ ^2? (98%) occurred at pH 4. Anions were found to play a negative role in the adsorption phenomenon. Metal ion Sorption has been found to decrease with increasing anionic concentrations. The methodology proposed might provide an inexpensive and economical procedure for removal and recovery of toxic metals from electroplating wastes.     

添加NBPT/DMPP/CP的高效稳定性尿素在黑土和褐土中的施用效应

[目的]研究添加脲酶/硝化抑制剂的高效稳定性尿素在黑土和褐土中的作用效果,为科学合理选择抑制剂提供科学依据.[方法]以春玉米为试材,采用东北典型的黑土和褐土进行盆栽试验.供试抑制剂包括N-丁基硫代磷酰三胺(NBPT)、3,4-二甲基吡唑磷酸盐(DMPP)、2-氯-6(三氯甲基)-吡啶(CP).试验设不施氮肥(U0)、施...     

Measurement of Spaghetti Speck Count,Size, and Color Using an Automated Imaging System

An objective imaging method was developed to count dark specks in spaghetti. The method simultaneously measured individual speck size and color and the overall color of the spaghetti. Spaghetti samples were prepared from durum wheat samples collected from the Prairie Registration Recommending Committee for Grains (PRRCG) durum wheat cooperative trials during four consecutive crop years from 2002 inclusive to 2005. Differences in speck counts were found between samples within each year. From year to year, the baseline for speck counts varied with the highest numbers in 2005 and the lowest numbers in 2004. For comparison, three technicians also counted the number of specks in each sample. These visual counts were not consistent between technicians or technician to the imaging method, supporting the need for this objective approach. Spaghetti speck counts did not relate to the speck counts of the semolina subsequently used to prepare the product. Speck sizes were consistent across samples and between years, indicating a consistent milling method for all the samples. Differences in speck count numbers could not be attributed to differences in speck color or pasta color. The imaging method gave very consistent speck counts and color measurements over the four years.     

Steepland resources: characteristics, stability and micromorphology

Steeplands of Central America are a major land resource, but due to population pressures they are rapidly being deforested leading to landscape instability. Microwatersheds of Southern Honduras were examined to correlate soil type, landform, slope gradient and slump potential. Soils most susceptible to slumping were moderately deep (0.5–1 m) Haplustalfs and Haplustepts. These soils occupy about 25% of the landscape, and have slope gradients of 45–90%. Soils are developed on plagioclase-rich andesitic parent material, are loam to clay loam in texture and have high base status. However, due to weathering of parent material, sand and silt fractions are dominated by quartz with smaller amounts of plagioclase, vermiculite and kaolinite. The A and B horizons have an open porphyric related distribution with plagioclase as the coarse fraction in a fine-grained groundmass. The andesitic parent rock contains abundant hydrothermally altered plagioclase phenocrysts in a single-spaced porphyric-related (c/f_5μm ratio of 4:1) distribution. Some feldspars are partially to completely altered to clay pseudomorphs, probably vermiculite. Microfabric analysis of soil and pararock did not show any striated b-fabric indicative of shear failure. However, microfabrics do confirm translocated clay into the subsoil as typic pore coatings indicating long-term landscape stability prior to deforestation.     

Effect of Kernel Size,Location, and Type of Damage on Popping Characteristics of Popcorn

Popping characteristics, specifically expansion volume and popping time, were studied for damaged popcorn. A single variety of commercial undamaged yellow popcorn was separated into four size fractions (D < 4.36, 4.36 < D < 5.16, 5.16 < D < 5.95, and D > 5.95 mm) by screening with round-hole sieves. Kernels were damaged using a razor knife by either slicing a 2-mm diameter piece of the endosperm or the germ or by cutting through the pericarp and seed coat into the endosperm or the germ ≈2 mm. A total of five combinations of location and damage were studied (tip cap removed, side cut, side sliced, germ cut, and germ sliced) for each kernel size. A control sample with no damage was also analyzed for each size fraction. All of the damaged kernels (regardless of type of damage) popped, but they had expansion volumes 9.1–47.5% smaller than those of undamaged kernels. The expansion volume of damaged kernels increased by 52.5–85.7%, depending on the damage, when the size of the kernel increased from <4.36 mm to >5.95 mm. Removing the tip cap and slicing through the germ caused less loss of expansion volume than did other types of damage. Damaged popcorn kernels had faster popping times (12.2–24.0 sec) than did undamaged kernels (30.9–34.6 sec). Popping times increased with increasing kernel size for all types of damage.     

Relative stability, performance, and superiority of crop genotypes across environments

Assessments of the stability as well as the performance of plant genotypes across diverse environmental conditions are important to plant breeders and agronomists as tools for selecting superior cultivars for the target environments. In this study, the shortcomings of fitted response as an indicator of relative stability are discussed and use of a genotype-environment correlation coefficient, r _ge, as a measure of relative stability is proposed. Two other relevantindices are introduced: performance index, p _i , and superiority index, s _i . The latter is a compound index for stability and performance that provides a simple method for selecting superior genotypes for relevant environments. In application, a distinction is made between specific stability (over space and microclimate) and general stability (over space and time) depending on the format of the specified environmentalindex. A statistical significance test for relative stability is considered and three datasets are used to demonstrate the application of derived indices under varying environment combinations. Appraisal of the method and some currently appealing procedures applied to the same dataset reveal a general concordance under similar conditions. The introduced parameters prove to be simple, convenient tools for examining data from plant adaptation trials in the presence of genotype × environment interaction.     

Bran Particle Size Influence on Pasta Microstructure,Water Distribution,and Sensory Properties

Whole wheat pasta offers improved nutritional value compared with regular pasta but lacks appeal to many consumers owing to its negative organoleptic properties, such as texture and taste. Various approaches have been studied to improve these properties in whole wheat products. Optimizing bran particle size showed its potential in noodles, but studies of its effects in pasta are scarce. Therefore, we produced spaghetti enriched with bran fractions similar in chemical composition but with varying median particle sizes of 90, 160, 370, and 440 µm. The effect of bran particles and their median size on dried and cooked pasta was studied by light microscopy and three‐dimensional magnetic resonance imaging. In general, bran particle size did not influence the macrostructure in cooked spaghetti. However, larger bran particles created a more heterogeneous microstructure in contrast to smaller particles and affected starch granule swelling. Sensory analysis indicated a preference for pasta containing smaller particles. Our results give new insight into the microstructural features responsible for the negative consumer appeal, and they could be used to guide future efforts in designing improved pasta formulations.     

Comparison of chloroform fumigation-extraction, phospholipid fatty acid, and DNA methods to determine microbial biomass in forest humus

Techniques developed to measure microbial biomass in mineral soils may not give reliable results in humus. We evaluated the relationships between three techniques to estimate microbial biomass in forest humus: chloroform fumigation-extraction (CFE), total extractable phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA), and extractable DNA. There was a good relationship between PLFA and CFE (R²=0.96), with a slope slightly different from that previously reported for mineral soils (1 nmol PLFA corresponded to a flush of 3.2 μg C released by fumigation in humus cf. 2.4 μg C in mineral soil). There was no relationship between DNA concentration and the other two measurements of microbial biomass. This may be due, in part, to the high fungal biomass in forest humus, as DNA concentration per unit biomass is much more variable for fungi than bacteria.     

Development of biodegradable films from whey proteins by cross-linking and entrapment in cellulose

When cross-linked by heating or by gamma-irradiation and entrapped in cellulose, whey proteins can generate insoluble biofilms with good mechanical properties and high resistance to attack by proteolytic enzymes. Interchain cross-linking of proteins generated an increase in the puncture strength, and a decrease in water vapor permeability. Gelatin was added in film formulation as a stabilizer to improve the puncture strength and film appearance. The structure of the biofilms was also analyzed. SDS-PAGE revealed that heating and gamma-irradiation produce an increase of the molecular weight of the cross-linked protein. Size exclusion chromatography showed a molecular mass of 40 kDa for un-cross-linked whey proteins, whereas for the soluble fractions of the cross-linked proteins, molecular distributions were between 600 and 3800 kDa for the heated proteins and between 1000 and 2000 kDa for gamma-irradiated proteins. No major alteration of the structural conformation of the proteins was observed by FTIR for biofilms obtained after heat treatment, whereas gamma-irradiation induced some modifications in the protein structure. X-ray diffraction analysis suggests that cross-linking by gamma-irradiation seems to modify the conformation of proteins, which became more ordered and more stable.