Ultraviolet spectrometer observations of uranus

Data from solar and stellar occultations of Uranus indicate a temperature of about 750 kelvins in the upper levels of the atmosphere (composed mostly of atomic and molecular hydrogen) and define the distributions of methane and acetylene in the lower levels. The ultraviolet spectrum of the sunlit hemisphere is dominated by emissions from atomic and molecular hydrogen, which are kmown as electroglow emissions. The energy source for these emissions is unknown, but the spectrum implies excitation by low-energy electrons (modeled with a 3-electron-volt Maxwellian energy distribution). The major energy sink for the electrons is dissociation of molecular hydrogen, producing hydrogen atoms at a rate of 10(29) per second. Approximately half the atoms have energies higher than the escape energy. The high temperature of the atmosphere, the small size of Uranus, and the number density of hydrogen atoms in the thermosphere imply an extensive thermal hydrogen corona that reduces the orbital lifetime of ring particles and biases the size distribution toward larger particles. This corona is augmented by the nonthermal hydrogen atoms associated with the electroglow. An aurora near the magnetic pole in the dark hemisphere arises from excitation of molecular hydrogen at the level where its vertical column abundance is about 10(20) per square centimeter with input power comparable to that of the sunlit electroglow (approximately 2x10(11) watts). An initial estimate of the acetylene volume mixing ratio, as judged from measurements of the far ultraviolet albedo, is about 2 x 10(-7) at a vertical column abundance of molecular hydrogen of 10(23) per square centimeter (pressure, approximately 0.3 millibar). Carbon emissions from the Uranian atmosphere were also detected.     

Ultraviolet spectrometer observations of neptune and triton

Results from the occultation of the sun by Neptune imply a temperature of 750 +/- 150 kelvins in the upper levels of the atmosphere (composed mostly of atomic and molecular hydrogen) and define the distributions of methane, acetylene, and ethane at lower levels. The ultraviolet spectrum of the sunlit atmosphere of Neptune resembles the spectra of the Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus atmospheres in that it is dominated by the emissions of H Lyman alpha (340 +/- 20 rayleighs) and molecular hydrogen. The extreme ultraviolet emissions in the range from 800 to 1100 angstroms at the four planets visited by Voyager scale approximately as the inverse square of their heliocentric distances. Weak auroral emissions have been tentatively identified on the night side of Neptune. Airglow and occultation observations of Triton's atmosphere show that it is composed mainly of molecular nitrogen, with a trace of methane near the surface. The temperature of Triton's upper atmosphere is 95 +/- 5 kelvins, and the surface pressure is roughly 14 microbars.     

Apollo 16 far-ultraviolet camera/spectrograph: Earth observations

A far-ultraviolet camera/spectograph experiment was operated on the lunar surface during the Apollo 16 mission. Among the data obtained were images and spectra of the terrestrial atmosphere and geocorona in the wavelength range below 1600 angstroms. These gave the spatial distributions and relative intensities of emissions due to atomic hydrogen, atomic oxygen, molecular nitrogen, and other species-some observed spectrographically for the first time.     

Extreme ultraviolet observations from voyager 1 encounter with jupiter

Observations of the optical extreme ultraviolet spectrum of the Jupiter planetary system during the Voyager 1 encounter have revealed previously undetected physical processes of significant proportions. Bright emission lines of S III, S IV, and O III indicating an electron temperature of 10(5) K have been identified in preliminary analyses of the Io plasma torus spectrum. Strong auroral atomic and molecular hydrogen emissions have been observed in the polar regions of Jupiter near magnetic field lines that map the torus into the atmosphere of Jupiter. The observed resonance scattering of solar hydrogen Lyman alpha by the atmosphere of Jupiter and the solar occultation experiment suggest a hot thermosphere (>/= 1000 K) wvith a large atomic hydrogen abundance. A stellar occultation by Ganymede indicates that its atmosphere is at most an exosphere.     

Water vapor from a lunar breccia: implications for evolving planetary atmospheres

The exposure of a typical complex lunar breccia to hydrogen after a thorough outgassing produces a fully reduced surface state. Subsequent outgassing over a wide temperature range results in the production of water vapor formed from the chemisorbed hydrogen and oxygen from the lunar sample; the proposed mechanism has been confirmed in terms of the chemisorption of deuterium and the release of heavy water. Since the conditions of the experiments are consistent with those on the lunar surface, it is postulated that water vapor will be produced on the moon through the interaction of the solar wind with lunar soil. It is also proposed that such a process could play an important role in the early history of many planets where an oxygen-rich soil is exposed to a reducing atmosphere.     

Nightglow in the upper atmosphere of Mars and implications for atmospheric transport

We detected light emissions in the nightside martian atmosphere with the SPICAM (spectroscopy for the investigation of the characteristics of the atmosphere of Mars) ultraviolet (UV) spectrometer on board the Mars Express. The UV spectrum of this nightglow is composed of hydrogen Lyman alpha emission (121.6 nanometers) and the gamma and delta bands of nitric oxide (NO) (190 to 270 nanometers) produced when N and O atoms combine to produce the NO molecule. N and O atoms are produced by extreme UV photodissociation of O2, CO2, and N2 in the dayside upper atmosphere and transported to the night side. The NO emission is brightest in the winter south polar night because of continuous downward transport of air in this region at night during winter and because of freezing at ground level.     

Ultraviolet Emissions Observed near Venus from Mariner V

A Lyman-alpha airglow of atomic hydrogen measured in the outer atmosphere of Venus showed that atomic hydrogen is present. The variation as a function of height indicates that the temperature of the upper atmosphere of Venus is lower than that of Earth. An ultraviolet airglow of atomic oxygen was not found. An ultraviolet nightglow was observed on the dark limb.     

Extreme ultraviolet observations from voyager 1 encounter with saturn

The global hydrogen Lyman alpha, helium (584 angstroms), and molecular hydrogen band emissions from Saturn are qualitatively similar to those of Jupiter, but the Saturn observations emphasize that the H(2) band excitation mechanism is closely related to the solar flux. Auroras occur near 80 degrees latitude, suggesting Earth-like magnetotail activity, quite different from the dominant Io plasma torus mechanism at Jupiter. No ion emissions have been detected from the magnetosphere of Saturn, but the rings have a hydrogen atmosphere; atomic hydrogen is also present in a torus between 8 and 25 Saturn radii. Nitrogen emission excited by particles has been detected in the Titan dayglow and bright limb scans. Enhancement of the nitrogen emission is observed in the region of interaction between Titan's atmosphere and the corotating plasma in Saturn's plasmasphere. No particle-excited emission has been detected from the dark atmosphere of Titan. The absorption profile of the atmosphere determined by the solar occultation experiment, combined with constraints from the dayglow observations and temperature information, indicate that N(2) is the dominant species. A double layer structure has been detected above Titan's limb. One of the layers may be related to visible layers in the images of Titan.     

Lunar atmosphere as a source of argon-40 and other lunar surface elements

The lunar atmosphere is the likely source of excess argon-40 in lunar surface material; about 8.5 percent of the argon-40 released into the lunar atmosphere will be implanted in the surface material by photoionization and subsequent interaction with fields in the solar wind. The atmosphere is also likely to be the source of other unexpected surface elements or of solar wind elements that impact from non-solar wind directions.     

Termites: a potentially large source of atmospheric methane, carbon dioxide, and molecular hydrogen

Termites may emit large quantities of methane, carbon dioxide, and molecular hydrogen into the atmosphere. Global annual emissions calculated from laboratory measurements could reach 1.5 x 10(14) grams of methane and 5 x 10(16) grams of carbon dioxide. As much as 2 x 10(14) grams of molecular hydrogen may also be produced. Field measurements of methane emissions from two termite nests in Guatemala corroborated the laboratory results. The largest emissions should occur in tropical areas disturbed by human activities.     

Comment on "A hydrogen-rich early Earth atmosphere"

Tian et al. (Reports, 13 May 2005, p. 1014) proposed a hydrogen-rich early atmosphere with slow hydrogen escape from a cold thermosphere. However, their model neglects the ultraviolet absorption of all gases other than H2. The model also neglects Earth's magnetic field, which affects the temperature and density of ions and promotes nonthermal escape of neutral hydrogen.     

Surface-related mercury in lunar samples

Lunar samples contain mercury, which may be volatilized at lunar daytime temperatures. Such mercury may constitute part of the tenuous lunar atmosphere. If mercury can escape from the atmosphere by a nonthermal mechanism, an interior reservoir or exterior sources (such as meteorite infall or solar wind, or both) are required to replenish it. Core samples exhibit an increase in surface-related mercury with depth, which suggests that a cold trap exists below the surface. The orientation of rocks on the lunar surface may be inferred by differences in the amounts of surface-related mercury found on exterior and interior samples.     

Volcanic aerosols and lunar eclipses

The moon is visible during total lunar eclipses due to sunlight refracted into the earth's shadow by the atmosphere. Stratospheric aerosols can profoundly affect the brightness of the eclipsed moon. Observed brightnesses of 21 lunar eclipses during 1960-1982 are compared with theoretical calculations based on refraction by an aerosol-free atmosphere to yield globally averaged aerosol optical depths. Results indicate the global aerosol loading from the 1982 eruption of El Chichón is similar in magnitude to that from the 1963 Agung eruption.     

Mariner 9 ultraviolet spectrometer experiment: initial results

The ultraviolet airglow spectrum of Mars has been measured from an orbiting spacecraft during a 30-day period in November-December 1971. The emission rates of the carbon monoxide Cameron and fourth positive bands, the atomic oxygen 1304-angstrom line and the atomic hydrogen 1216-angstrom line have been measured as a function of altitude. Significant variations in the scale height of the CO Cameron band airglow have been observed during a period of variable solar activity; however, the atomic oxygen and hydrogen airglow lines are present during all the observations. Measurements of the reflectance of the lower atmosphere of Mars show the spectral characteristics of particle scattering and a magnitude that is about 50 percent of that measured during the Mariner 6 and 7 experiments in 1969. The variation of reflectance across the planet may be represented by a model in which the dominant scatterer is dust that absorbs in the ultraviolet and has an optical depth greater than 1. The atmosphere above the polar region is clearer than over the rest of the planet.     

18O/16O, 30Si/28Si, D/H, and 13C/12C Studies of Lunar Rocks and Minerals

The delta (18)O of minerals from lunar gabbros and basalts are: plgioclases +6.06 to +6.33), pyroxenes (+5.70 to +5.95), and ilmenites (+3.85 to +4.12). The uniformity of these results indicates isotopic equilibrium in the mineral assemblages. Estimated plagioclase-ilmenite temperautres range from 1150 degrees C to 1340 degrees C. The bulk (18)/ (16)O and (30)Si/ (28)Si ratios of these lunar rocks are identical with ratios of terrestrial basalts, but the lunar glass, breccia, and dust are slightly enriched in the heavier isotopes. The lunar hydrogen (formed from solar wind) has a delta D/H of less than-873 per mil and the value may be even lower, as it is probably contaminated with terrestrial hydrogen. The delta (13)C of lunar dust and breccia is unusually high relative to reduced carbon in meteorites or on earth.     

Gas analysis of the lunar surface

The rare gas analysis of the lunar surface has lead to important conclusions concerning the moon. The large amounts of rare gases found in the lunar soil and breccia indicate that the solar atmosphere is trapped in the lunar soil as no other source of such large amounts of gas is known. The cosmogenic products indicate that the exposure ages of the 17 lunar rocks measured vary from 20 to 400 million years with some grouping of the ages. The most striking feature is the old potassium-argon age which for the 14 rocks analyzed varies from 2.5 to 3.8 billion years. It is concluded that Mare Tranquillitatis crystallized about 4 billion years ago from a molten state produced by a large meteorite impact or volcanic flow.     

Ultrathin amorphous coatings on lunar dust grains

UItrathin amorphous coatings have been observed by high-voltage electron microscopy on micrometer-sized dust grains from the Apollo 11, Apollo 12, Apollo 14, and Luna 16 missions. Calibration experiments show that these coatings result from an "ancient" implantation of solar wind ions in the grains. This phenomenon has interdisciplinary applications concerning the past activity of the sun, the lunar albedo, the ancient lunar atmosphere and magnetic field, the carbon content of lunar soils, and lunar dynamic processes.     

Discovery of sodium and potassium vapor in the atmosphere of the moon

Spectra of the region just above the bright limb of the Moon show weak emission features that are attributed to resonant scattering of sunlight from sodium and potassium vapor in the lunar atmosphere. The maximum omnidirectional emission flux above the bright limb is 3.8 +/- 0.4 kilorayleighs for sodium and 1.8 +/- 0.4 kiloray-leighs for potassium. The zenith column densities above the subsolar point are estimated to be 8 +/- 3 x 10(8) atoms cm(-2) for sodium 1.4 +/- 0.3 x 10(8) atoms cm(-2) for potassium. Corresponding surface densities are 67 +/- 12 atoms cm(-3) and 15 +/- 3 atoms cm(-3), respectively. The scale height for the sodium atmosphere is 120 +/- 42 kilometers, and for potassium 90 +/- 20 kilometers, which implies that the effective temperature of the sodium and potassium is close to the lunar surface temperature. The sodium density at the south polar region was found to be similar to that at the subsolar point, indicating wide-spread distribution of sodium vapor over the lunar surface. The ratio of the density of sodium to the density of potassium is (6 +/- 3) to 1, which is close to the sodium to potassium ratio in the lunar surface, suggesting that the atmosphere originates from the vaporization of surface minerals.     

Lunar rivers

Mature meanders in lunar sinuous rills strongly suggests that the rills are features of surface erosion by water. Such erosion could occur under a pressurizing ice cover in the absence of a lunar atmosphere. Water, outgassed from the lunar interior and trapped beneath a layer of permafrost, could be released by a meteoritic impact and overflow the crater to form an ice-covered river. A sinuous rill could be eroded in about 100 years.     

Discovery of vapor deposits in the lunar regolith

Lunar soils contain micrometer-sized mineral grains surrounded by thin amorphous rims. Similar features have been produced by exposure of pristine grains to a simulated solar wind, leading to the widespread belief that the amorphous rims result from radiation damage. Electron microscopy studies show, however, that the amorphous rims are compositionally distinct from their hosts and consist largely of vapor-deposited material generated by micrometeorite impacts into the lunar regolith. Vapor deposits slow the lunar erosion rate by solar wind sputtering, influence the optical properties of the lunar regolith, and may account for the presence of sodium and potassium in the lunar atmosphere.