A strategic alliance model for economic organisation of small-scale forestry in Australia

Small-scale plantation forestry is likely to have a number of discrete agents contributing endowments to the production function. In this paper it is argued that the traditional methods of economic organisation used in plantation forestry may not be appropriate for achieving the objectives of the venture partners so alternative methods may be required. A strategic alliance model for small-scale plantation ventures in north Queensland is developed, which has multi-nodal features and which incorporate vertical and horizontal alliances. The core alliance is vertical and involves seven potential primary factors of production necessary for a successful forestry venture (namely land, labour, capital, silviculture skills, marketing skills, harvesting and processing skills and government). The strategic alliance model also incorporates horizontal alliances because each partner may participate in a network with other like partners within their field, therefore representing economies of size or scale alliances. The proposed model recognises the importance of minimising transaction costs, building trust, promoting sound corporate governance and ensuring continuing information exchanges between partners are being the factors behind successful alliances.     

Understandings of Sustainable Corporate Governance by Australian Managed Investment Schemes and Some Implications for Small-scale Forestry in Australia

This study reveals that managers of Australian managed investment schemes understand sustainable corporate governance as a mix of financial, natural environment and social outcomes. A number of managers who were interviewed prioritized financial aspects of business performance but acknowledged that sustained financial performance is only possible if positive natural environment outcomes and positive social outcomes are also sustained. In this context, the managers expressed qualified support for the development of small-scale forestry in Australia. Some implications of these findings for small-scale forestry in Australia are discussed, including how opportunities exist for small-scale forestry proponents to collaborate with firms that operate managed investment schemes to lobby governments for further policy support that assists the sustainable development of both sectors.     

福建省人工用材林收益与风险分析

对福建省人工用材林的投资风险进行实证分析,得出结论:1993-2002年,福建省人工用材林自然灾害风险所造成的平均风险损失较低,这与木材税费下降和人工林优惠政策出台有关;然而,对私人而言,其森林一旦发生火灾或病虫害,将造成投资损失,因此,政府必须建立分散风险的制度.     

Poor Stem Form as a Potential Limitation to Private Investment in Koa Plantation Forestry in Hawaii

Providing economic incentives to landholders is an effective way of promoting sustainable forest management, conservation and restoration. In Hawaii, the main native hardwood species with commercial value is Acacia koa (koa), but lack of successful examples of koa plantation forestry hinders private investment. Financial models, which have been offered to encourage investment, assume that a particular minimum volume of merchantable wood will be harvested at rotation age. No studies have been done to determine the appropriateness of the assumed volumes for koa plantations. Three 18- to 28-year-old koa plantations were studied to determine butt-log size, crown class and crop tree potential. Estimates of present and future merchantable sawtimber volume were made for each plantation. Results indicate that most existing plantation koa trees fork so close to the ground that they will produce little to no merchantable wood. Projected sawtimber yields from crop trees in these plantations at age 45 years are 10, 15 and 90 m³/ha, which are below the 135 m³/ha yield used in the most recent financial analysis of returns on investment in koa forestry. Relaxing the crop tree criteria gives higher volume yields, but two plantations still fall short of the assumed target yield by 43 and 52%. Given such shortfalls, returns on investment will be less than predicted by the financial analysis. Nevertheless, government offered financial incentives should compensate for lower volume yields and thus promote private investment in koa plantation forestry. Insect herbivory, genetic diversity, and low stand density contribute to poor stem form of plantation koa, and research is needed to quantify the relative importance of and interactions between these factors.     

新西兰人工林的发展

新西兰造林事业始于1898年,历史上曾出现两次造林高潮。新西兰现有人工林总面积为1 133 022公顷,其中90%为辐射松。新西兰人工林的主要特点是:(1)几乎全部由外来树种组成;(2)人工林的生产周期较长,25-35年,经营强度高;(3)政府大量投资营建人工林;(4)政府采取各种方针和政策刺激和鼓励私营公司和个体农场主营建人工林;(5)人工林已经发展成为独立的产业,与其它产业部门一样,具有商业性的竞争能力。     

屏边县林业发展现状及战略规划

当前屏边县林业发展呈现出发展速度快,投资多元化,科技含量高等特点,但尚存在林业产业化程度低,林业发展不平衡,中低产林分布较广,农民收入低,对森林资源依赖性大等问题.藉此,提出速生丰产林建设、特色经济林建设、草果种植产业、中低产林改造、面山绿化和绿色通道建设、林地流转、公益林管护、林业招商引资等多项战略规划.     

Investment in Small-Scale Forestry Enterprises: A Strategic Perspective for India

Small and medium enterprises are a key driver of current double-digit industrial growth of India; however, the shrinking domestic log supply has created a unique market opportunity for global forest-based industries. This paper examines the major obstacles to investment in forests at the national and individual firm level and also the policy steps needed to overcome these obstacles. Forest-based small-scale enterprises cite finance as their principal constraint in maintaining their competitive position and developing their activities, with shortages of raw material often taking second place. India has extensive tracts of land suitable and available for forestry; afforestation, although economically viable, requires massive initial investment by both the government and private sectors. India is promoting public–private partnerships in order to increase forest cover to ensure entitlement for the investor over forest produce, along with necessary safeguards for protection of and compensation for the rights of village dwellers and communities, besides providing them additional benefits and livelihood. Governments need to tackle corruption and other forms of rent-seeking, in order to build credibility with firms, foster public trust and legitimacy and ensure their policy interventions are crafted to fit local conditions. Competition requires the Indian forest products industry to accomplish a strong improvement in its economic and technological capabilities. The challenge for forest policy-makers in India is to find the right mix of policies and incentives to attract private investment.

我国南亚热带珍优乡土阔叶树种大径材人工林的培育

在我国南亚热带地区培育珍优阔叶树种大径材人工林,可以兼顾珍贵用材生产和生物多样性保护、生态效益最大化追求、森林生态系统稳定性维持,实现森林可持续经营.近20余年的研究和实践增进了人们对珍优乡土阔叶树种的了解,必须重新评价其林学特性和重要性.经营珍优乡土阔叶树种大径材人工林的关键技术环节在于:依据生境异质性和树种特性细致规划林地,使用良种壮苗,适时调控林分密度,运用多树种混交,通过抹芽修枝培育无节良材,实施择伐和林隙更新保证森林生态系统稳定.本文以红椎为例,对经营珍优乡土阔叶树种的经济效益进行了概算,并提出了珍优阔叶树种大径材培育的未来优先研究方向.     

The New Zealand forestry sector's experience in providing carbon sequestration services under the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme, 2008 to 2012

The New Zealand government established the New Zealand Emissions Trading scheme (NZ ETS) as the primary mechanism for achieving New Zealand's Kyoto obligations between 2008 and 2012. The legislation made planted forests the first sector to participate in the NZ ETS, starting in 2008. At the same time, other schemes to encourage carbon sequestration through forestry were also implemented.The implementation of the NZ ETS has focussed on meeting New Zealand's international obligations between 2008 and 2012 at minimum cost, and there is little evidence it has led to any reduction in greenhouse gas emissions or investment in new planted forests in New Zealand. The NZ ETS has been most effective at facilitating the transfer of international (Kyoto compliant) carbon credits from emitters to the New Zealand government. These credits have been used to partially meet New Zealand's obligations for the first Kyoto commitment period, allowing other units to be carried over to meet obligations from 2013 to 2020.The paper shows that participation in the NZ ETS is unlikely to contribute a long-term positive impact on profitability of commercial forestry, and that the liabilities created through participation in the NZ ETS do not assist the development of the forestry sector in New Zealand. The paper suggests that the NZ ETS is not the correct policy instrument to encourage carbon sequestration by planted forests.     

林业经济合作社可行性探讨

林业经济合作社是实现传统小农林业经济向现代林业经济转变的重要途径,具有广阔发展前景.但在当前发展初期还有许多政策法规、政府及林业部门服务体系建设,以及新形势下森林经营管理制度等方面的问题,需要不断配套完善和健全,因此林权制度改革有必要采取长期策略,同时还要尊重林农意愿,坚持民办、民营、民受益的原则,政府促进不包办,支持不参与,监督不干扰.     

NWFP&;S Marketing: Lessons Learned and New Development Paths from Case Studies in Some European Countries

The paper examines key factors affecting the marketing of various types of Non-Wood Forest Products and Services (NWFP&S) through a comparative analysis of case studies in Europe, according to the main results of Working Group 3 (WG3) of the COST Action E30 ‘Economic integration of urban consumers’ demand and rural forestry production. Seventeen Italian case studies have been analysed in addition to the COST Action E30 experiences. Products and services are classified within a conceptual framework developed by the WG3 and described in detail according to three main categories: mass-produced, specialized and complementary NWFP&S. Especially this latter category can play a relevant role in improving the profitability of small and medium-scale forest-based enterprises and in maintaining competitiveness of the forest product-consumer chain in rural areas, but new marketing strategies are necessary for commercial success. Differentiation, integration and creation of networking among both private and public actors and the development of the so-called ‘territorial marketing’ are considered the most important tools for the role of complementary NWFP&S in improving the economic value of small-scale forestry in marginal areas.     

非公有制林业是县域林业发展之路

发展非公有制林业对县域经济发展有重要意义,针对当前在发展非公有制林业中尚存在的诸多问题。提出深化林地制度改革,减轻税费负担,改革限额采伐管理制度以及加大投资扶持力度等对策和建议。     

瑞典林业财政制度及其对我国的启示

瑞典是林业发达国家, 林业财政政策是瑞典用以增加森林资源、鼓励林业可持续发展、保护环境的重要手段。文中介绍瑞典林业投资、税收、补贴和补偿等林业财政政策, 分析其对瑞典林业发展方向、生态保护、林产品有效供给和林产品国际竞争力的影响, 提出对我国林业财政政策制定和实施的启示。     

不动产信托投资基金用于林业融资的探讨

随着我国林业产业发展和生态修复工程的加速开展,林业资金投入与需求之间的缺口日渐变大,林业投融资机制存在的问题日益凸显,已成为制约我国林业进一步发展的重大障碍。不动产信托基金(REITs)作为流动性高、投资风险较低、收益较为稳定的金融产品,能够起到盘活存量资产,拓宽社会资本投资渠道,使资本市场高效服务实体经济的作用。自2020年4月起,关于REITs的政策密集出台,标志着我国不动产信托基金试点的正式起步。随着政策发布,各大基金公司积极地寻找优质项目,截至2020年11月,多家拟发行REITs的基金公司已赴国家发改委进行答辩,意味着大批REITs产品即将面世,新的蓝海也即将出现。但由于目前的试点要求,林业类项目暂时还不具备大规模发行REITs的条件。从资本市场的角度出发,通过分析REITs的特性和我国林业的融资困境与发展趋势,结合实际数据与政策要求,对林业行业运用不动产信托基金融资的可行性和必要性进行了分析研究,为进一步拓宽我国林业的融资渠道,降低融资成本提供启示和政策建议。     

Tropical Forestry

An overview of the forestry sector in Costa Rica was undertaken to determine whether the existing management practices of timber resources hold the potential to meet the country's demands for timber in the immediate decades to come, and to identify changes that might be needed in the management of forested lands. To meet these goals, we examined the present status and potential future contribution of the two newest forest sectors: the management of natural forest and plantation forestry. Rcsults indicate that the present management of Costa Rica's timber resources does not hold the potential to meet the country's demands for timber for more than the next ten years without severe loss of its forests. Substantial progress is occurring, but at an insufficient rate. Moreover, despite the considerable headway made in conservation in recent years, the rate of deforestation remains high. A number of factors limit advancement in natural forest management and plantation forestry, both of which have the potential to deaccelerate deforestation. In natural forest management, constraints are the rate at which forests are being brought under management, lack of budgetary provisions for fiscal incentives to private owners who alone cannot be expected to bear the cost of benefits of natural forest management that are national or even global in their distribution, and the weak infrastructure, extension services and research support to meet management goals. In the case of plantation forestry, the capability of this sector to produce commercial timber is not known. Moreover, inadequate management and extension services together with the misuse of the incentive system by private owners is likely to limit the potential of plantations. Institutional constraints include outdated legal and bureaucratic framework, market interventions, absence of clear policy toward natural forest management and plantation forestry, poor investment in infrastructure, extension and research support, and inadequate interaction among various agencies responsible for the development of the forestry sector. Such institutional constraints have allowed the proliferation of disincentives against the development of a sustainable timber sector. If the Costa Rican government's objective is to encourage sustainable forestry, it must first clearly articulate the policy and then create the appropriate legal, economic and institutional framework for implementation of the policy. Costa Rica, with its enlightened public administration system, vast technical and scientific knowledge about its forest ecosystem and extensive assistance from international organizations, must succeed, otherwise prospects for sustainable forestry in thc less fortunate tropical countries would be bleak.     

Factors influencing Norwegian small-scale private forest owners’ ability to meet the political goals

Abstract

Norwegian forest policy has high-level, complex objectives for the products and benefits from the forest, including increased contribution to the climate, preservation of biodiversity, and creation of economic values. In Norway, it is first and foremost small-scale private forest owners who have to deliver on these expanded goals. The article reveals owners’ lack of forestry competence, and elaborates on the role of forestry employees (advisers) in owners’ decision-making processes, be it forestry-competent owners or not. There is, however, a decreased number of advisers in the private and public forest services, implying that forest owners are atomised in the meaning of being alone. This type of individualization and an increasing lack of forestry competence among forest owners are a contradiction. The mismatch is serious for the government and the forestry business because it probably hampers the fulfilment of the political objectives. The article presents six options for meeting the obstacles to goal fulfilment. The article is based on two research projects from the counties of Trøndelag and Hedmark. Data were collected between 2002 and 2007 and include survey, focus group interviews, in-depth interviews, fieldwork and document analysis.     

世界若干地区的小型林业

通过概述东亚、北美和西欧林地所有制构成来展现小型林业的现状。勾勒出小型林业的几个主要特点。讨论了小林主所面临的重要挑战,并总结了一些国家针对现存问题而采取的经济措施,对今后小型林业研究方向提出几点看法。     

美国私有林管理及其对广东民营林业发展的启示

美国政府十分重视私有林的发展，通过立法明确私有林产权、规范私有林主行为，实行积极的经济和科技扶持政策，使私有林业成为美国的重要产业之一。美国私有林已建立了一整套完善的管理制度，积累了许多成功的经验，为广东省民营林业的发展提供了有益的启示。     

Small-scale planted forests in Zululand,South Africa: an opportunity for appropriate development

Forestry in South Africa is sharply divided between commercially driven private enterprise which controls 1.3 million ha of plantation forests, and government and nongovernment organizations which promote a variety of social forestry programs. One area of crossover is that of small-scale (1–2 ha) commercial woodlots being promoted by private timber companies as an additional source of fiber for their pulpmills, but grown and managed by individual farmers. Inputs, such as plants and fertilizers, as well as expertise in the form of extension foresters, are provided by the company, whereas the farmers supply the land and the labor. The company guarantees to buy the timber at the time of harvest. Under such arrangements, the risk is spread between the farmers and the company; the farmers assume most of the risks of production, and the company takes on the marketing risks. The possibilities for appropriate and sustainable development do exist under such a program, but issues involving both ecological and social sustainability must be addressed. This paper suggests that four key characteristics are needed to achieve appropriate development in Zululand. These characteristics are participation, flexibility, empowerment, and commitment. When compared to the current arrangement, the company would have to make a fundamental paradigm shift to achieve these goals. However, the long-term support of the farmers, and ultimately more fiber in the mills, would be the reward. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.