Annual costs associated with disease incidence and prevention in Colorado cow-calf herds participating in rounds 2 and 3 of the National Animal Health Monitoring System from 1986 to 1988

Thirty-nine and 47 randomly selected Colorado cow-calf operations were monitored for health events and their associated costs during rounds 2 and 3, respectively, of the National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS). Data were collected from each operation for a one-year period by NAHMS veterinarians through monthly interviews, and the costs associated with the incidence and prevention of disease conditions were determined and expressed on a per cow basis. The beef producers involved in this study spent an average of $32.75 per cow in round 2 and $40.97 per cow in round 3 on an annual basis for the treatment of disease conditions. These costs were not different between the 2 rounds because of the wide ranges in the individual herd costs for disease incidence in each round. In both years of the study, the largest contributor to the total mean annual cost of disease incidence was the cost of death of diseased animals, and this cost accounted for approximately two-thirds of the total mean annual cost in each round. The total mean annual costs of disease prevention in these herds were $11.24 and $11.19 per cow in rounds 2 and 3, respectively. There were wide ranges in both rounds in the amounts of money spent per cow by individual herds for disease prevention. The largest individual cost of disease prevention in each year was the cost of vaccines/drugs, whereas the smallest individual cost in each round was the cost of veterinary services.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

The financial and production impacts of bovine dermatophilosis in Zambia

During October to December 1986, 365 traditional cattle herds in four provinces in Zambia were inspected and the owners interviewed. Information was collected on the treatment, management and disposal of cases of bovine dermatophilosis and on the effects of this disease on productivity for 1985. The contemporary financial cost per case of treatment and/or premature disposal, slaughter or death to the owners was K. 202 (US$ 91). The cost due to draft oxen being affected was estimated at K. 428 (US$ 193) per affected ox. The cost of reduced milk production, replacing affected cows and calf deaths, directly or indirectly from bovine dermatophilosis, was estimated at K. 132 (US$ 78) per affected milking cow. The total annual national cost of bovine dermatophilosis in 1985 was conservatively estimated to be some K. 6.9 million, (US$ 3 million). There were indications that the true financial cost in 1985 may have been up to 1.8 times the estimated cost.     

Mortality of Swedish horses with complete life insurance between 1997 and 2000: variations with sex, age, breed and diagnosis

The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential usefulness of the database maintained by the Swedish insurance company Agria for providing mortality statistics on Swedish horses. Mortality statistics (incidence rates and survival) were calculated, both crudely and stratified by sex, age, breed, breed group and diagnosis, for the horses with complete life insurance, which covers most health problems. The total mortality was 415 (95 per cent confidence interval [CI] 399 to 432) deaths per 10,000 horse-years at risk, and the diagnostic mortality, including only deaths with an assigned diagnosis, was 370 (95 per cent CI 355 to 386) deaths per 10,000 horse-years at risk. The diagnostic mortality of geldings was 459 (95 per cent CI 431 to 487), of mares 345 (95 per cent CI 322 to 365) and of stallions 214 (95 per cent CI 182 to 247) deaths per 10,000 horse-years at risk. The mortality rates increased with age and differed widely between breeds. Survival analysis showed that the median age at death of the horses enrolled before they were one year of age was 18.8 years. The most common cause of death or euthanasia was joint problems, which were responsible for 140 (95 per cent CI 130 to 149) deaths per 10,000 horse-years at risk. The results of multivariable models developed by using Poisson regression generally agreed well with the crude results.     

Clinical, biochemical and pathological study of perinatal lambs in a commercial flock

The birth and fate of 818 lambs born to 571 ewes on a low-ground farm in the Scottish Borders with a history of substantial perinatal mortality were monitored with a range of physiological, biochemical and pathological measurements. In lambs which survived, the rectal temperature, birthweight and plasma concentrations of fructose, insulin, thyroxine and the third component of complement at birth, and the weight at four months of age, decreased with litter size. One hundred and thirty-seven lambs were stillborn or died within four days and seven others died later. The mothers of 77 per cent of these lambs had low condition scores, but the lamb deaths did not correlate significantly with the condition scores. From data relating to birthweight, temperature, packed cell volume and plasma composition it was deduced that placental insufficiency was involved in 24 per cent of these deaths; acute hypoxaemia at birth accounted for 35 per cent, inadequate thermogenesis for 12 per cent and starvation for 13 per cent. The remaining 16 per cent of dead lambs could not be assigned to any of these categories. Using only clinicopathological criteria, 37 per cent of the lamb deaths were attributed to antenatal influences which included immaturity, developmental anomalies, and degenerative or inflammatory changes. Thirty-three per cent of the deaths were due to post natal factors which included, in declining order of frequency, starvation, enteritis, misadventure, pneumonia, navel infections and septicaemia. No conclusions could be drawn from the pathological examinations alone in the remaining 30 per cent, although almost half of these had low rectal temperatures after birth, death being attributed to hypothermia.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Mortality in over 350,000 insured Swedish dogs from 1995-2000: I. Breed-, gender-, age- and cause-specific rates

This study presents data on over 350,000 insured Swedish dogs up to 10 years of age contributing to over one million dog-years at risk (DYAR) during 1995-2000. A total of 43,172 dogs died or were euthanised and of these 72% had a claim with a diagnosis for the cause of death. The overall total mortality was 393 deaths per 10,000 DYAR. Mortality rates are calculated for the 10 most common breeds, 10 breeds with high mortality and a group including all other breeds, crudely and for general causes of death. Proportional mortality is presented for several classifications. Five general causes accounted for 62% of the deaths with a diagnosis (i.e. tumour (18%), trauma (17%), locomotor (13%), heart (8%) and neurological (6%)). Mortality rates for the five most common diagnoses within the general causes of death are presented. These detailed statistics on mortality can be used in breed-specific strategies as well as for general health promotion programs. Further details on survival and relative risk by breed and age are presented in the companion paper (Egenvall et al. 2005).     

Dystocia in the bitch: A retrospective study of 182 cases

In a retrospective study of 182 cases of canine dystocia, no relationship was found between either breed or age and occurrence of dystocia. However, medium-sized breeds (between 12.7 and 20.5 kg bodyweight) were slightly over represented. Of the bitches that had whelped previously, 42 per cent had experienced dystocia. The dystocia was of maternal origin in 75.3 per cent of the cases, mainly due to uterine inertia, while 24.7 per cent were of fetal origin, mainly resulting from malpresentations/malorientations. The most common reason for dystocia was primary, complete uterine inertia (48.9 per cent) and 40 per cent of the bitches with this problem had small litters of one or two pups. The most common treatment was calcium and, or, oxytocin injection followed by a caesarean section. Digital manipulation including forceps delivery and, or, medical treatment was successful in only 27.6 per cent of the cases. Of the bitches studied, 65.7 per cent had a caesarean section. Pup deaths occurred in 52.2 per cent of the litters. Among bitches that had been treated within one to four-and-a-half hours after the beginning of second stage labour, 5.8 per cent of the pups died, whereas the corresponding value for bitches that had been treated between five and 24 hours after the beginning of second stage labour was 13.7 per cent. The total frequency of pup deaths was 22.3 per cent. These findings show that early diagnosis and prompt treatment are crucial in reducing the pup death rate in cases of dystocia.     

Descriptive epidemiology of morbidity and mortality in Minnesota dairy heifer calves

A prospective study was carried out on 845 heifer calves born during 1991 on 30 Holstein dairy farms in southeast Minnesota. The objectives of the study were to describe the epidemiology of morbidity and mortality in dairy calves from birth to 16 weeks of age (with an emphasis on respiratory disease), to examine individual calf and herd management practices as risk factors for calf morbidity and mortality, and to validate producer diagnosis of mortality. Incidence rates for all morbidity, enteritis, and pneumonia were 0.20, 0.15, and 0.10 cases per 100 calf-days at risk for the period of the study. Risk of enteritis was highest in the first 3 weeks of life, with pneumonia risk highest at 10 weeks of age. Case fatality rates averaged 11.8%, 17.9%, and 9.4% for all diagnoses, enteritis, and pneumonia, respectively. Average daily rates of gain from birth to 16 weeks of age differed between farms that had inadequate calf housing (0.8 kg day⁻¹) versus those with adequate calf housing (1.0 kg day⁻¹). Approximately half of the calves in the cohort (418) had blood samples taken monthly from birth until 16 weeks of age. Of the calves sampled, only 19 calves showed a four-fold rise in serum titers to respiratory viruses. Sixteen calves seroconverted to BVDV, two calves to IBRV, and one calf to PI3 virus. Of 98 calves less than 10 days of age tested for adequacy of passive transfer, 35 (35.7%) had serum immunoglobulin levels of less than 800 mg dl⁻¹. There were no significant differences in mortality or morbidity between calves that had adequate passive transfer and those that did not. The incidence of mortality was 0.08 deaths per 100 calf-days at risk; 64 calves died during the 16 months of the study. The risk of death was highest at 2 weeks of age. Enteritis was the most common cause of death (28 deaths, 44% of all deaths) followed by pneumonia (19 deaths, 30% of all deaths). Comparing producer diagnosis of mortality with necropsy results yielded sensitivities of 58.3% and 56% and specificities of 93% and 100% for producer diagnoses of enteritis and pneumonia, respectively. The kappa statistic comparing producer diagnosis with necropsy result was 0.47. The most common pathogens isolated from calves that died of enteritis were rotavirus (five calves), and Escherichia coli (four calves). Pathogens isolated from pneumonic lungs included Pasteurella multocida (three calves), Haemophilus somnus (three calves), and Pasteurella haemolytica (one calf).     

Mortality in early born, housed lambs in south-west England

During a 2 year study of diseases in lambs in three early lambing (housed) flocks a total of 428 of 4413 (9.7%) lambs died. All these lambs were examined at post mortem by one investigator who used a routine procedure. Results were stored on a database (dBase III Plus) and analysed using Epiinfo. The peak rate of death occured in lambs less than 1 week old. Over 50% of deaths took place in this period. A small proportion of lambs (approximately 10 out of 1000) died during the prenatal period. Fatalities included chlamydial and mycotic abortions, but in the majority of cases there was no specific abortive agent, lambs were either freshly dead or mummified. Partum deaths (23.3–45.1 per 1000) were categorised into those due to the lambing process, lambs born dead and congenital defects. The most frequent abnormality observed was subcapsular liver rupture (9.3–20.9 per 1000) with up to 60% of affected lambs also having signs of malpresentation (subcutaneous oedema of the neck). Early postpartum deaths (12.9–31.5 per 1000) were primarily associated with starvation.     

The relationship of age and stage of gestation to the incidence of embryo death in dairy cattle

Milk progesterone concentrations were measured thrice-weekly in approximately 200 autumn-calving cows of NIRD dairy herds in each of two successive years, about 100 being common to both years. From this, it was concluded that embryo death, later than the 14th day after artificial insemination occurred in about 10% of cows of each year. Most of the deaths occurred around the 35th day after AI, the time when the fetal membranes are becoming attached to the uterine wall. The incidence of embryo death around this time increases with age of cow.     

The impact of malnutrition and other causes of losses of adult sheep in 12 flocks during drought

OBJECTIVE: To establish the range and cost of losses in Merino flocks in southern New South Wales during drought conditions by determining the cause of death, morbidity or wasting in adult sheep. DESIGN AND POPULATION: Pathological studies were performed on 392 dead or moribund adult sheep from 12 Ovine Johne's disease (OJD)-infected flocks during 2002 and a further 58 sheep culled due to wasting from one of these flocks in 2003. Flocks ranged between 3,500 and 20,000 sheep. METHOD: The most likely cause of death, morbidity or wasting was determined following consideration of the environment in which the animal was found, clinical and gross pathological findings, plus histopathology of tissues collected during necropsy. RESULTS: A most likely cause of death, morbidity or wasting was determined for 362 sheep in 2002 and 58 sheep in 2003. OJD contributed to the death of 250 sheep in 2002, and wasting of 48 sheep in 2003. Of the sheep that died or were euthanased due to other causes, malnutrition was a contributing factor in the death of 70 sheep (63%) in 2002 and 2 sheep (20%) in 2003. Losses were not evenly distributed across flocks, with 57% of mortalities caused by malnutrition in 2002 occurring in one flock. Malnutrition accounted for 18% of the annual cost of all deaths among adult sheep in 2002 with an average cost of $16,882 per farm. Losses not attributed to malnutrition included a range of infectious and non-infectious disorders. These included balanoposthitis, clostridial enterotoxaemia, cutaneous myiasis, endoparasitism, enteritis, intestinal adenocarcinoma, misadventure, peritonitis, periparturient death of ewes, photosensitisation, pneumonia, post-shearing stress and squamous cell carcinoma of the perineum. CONCLUSION: Almost one third of mortalities in OJD-infected flocks during drought were unrelated to OJD and could be reduced by improving nutritional and disease management practices. The importance of close supervision of the flock is highlighted so that early management intervention can be instituted, including the culling of cases of welfare concern.     

Review of diagnostic laboratory submissions of adult cattle 'found dead' in England and Wales in 2004

A total of 253 submissions from adult cattle 'found dead' in England and Wales were referred to the Veterinary Laboratories Agency in 2004. Carcases accounted for 54 per cent of the submissions and were of more diagnostic value than other types of sample. Whether the animals were beef or dairy, their distance from the laboratory and the number of deaths in the incident affected the likelihood of samples being submitted. The probability of reaching a diagnosis was influenced by the type of sample, the level of testing and the interval from sampling to receipt in the laboratory. Systemic disease was the most frequent cause of death in both dairy and beef cattle with hypomagnesaemia being the most frequent diagnosis (52 per cent) in beef cattle. In dairy cattle, 34 per cent of the diagnoses were for sporadic events, including haemorrhage and torsions of the digestive and reproductive tracts.     

A dynamic, optimal disease control model for foot-and-mouth-disease: II. Model results and policy implications

A dynamic optimization model was used to search for optimal strategies to control foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in the three-county region in the Central Valley of California. The model minimized total regional epidemic cost by choosing the levels of depopulation of diagnosed herds, preemptive depopulation, and vaccination. Impacts of limited carcass disposal capacity and vaccination were also examined, and the shadow value, the implicit value of each capacity, was estimated. The model found that to control FMD in the region, (1) preemptive depopulation was not optimal, (2) vaccination, if allowed, was optimal, reducing total cost by 3–7%, (3) increased vaccination capacity reduced total cost up to US$ 119 per dose, (4) increased carcass disposal capacity reduced total cost by US$ 9000–59,400 per head with and without vaccination, respectively, and (5) dairy operations should be given preferential attention in allocating limited control resources.     

Influence of the route of infection of Pasteurella anatipestifer on the clinical and immune responses of white Pekin ducks

The clinical, pathological and immunological responses were compared in ducklings infected by the intramuscular, oral and intranasal routes with virulent Pasteurella anatipestifer. Intramuscular challenge resulted in clinical signs of infection and caused 100 per cent mortality within three days. No disease signs or death were observed in the orally challenged ducks. Whereas intranasal inoculation caused no deaths, signs of infection were observed in two of 12 birds four days later. In the orally challenged group, low concentrations of antibodies (0.17 log2 to 4.5 log2) were detected in the tracheal washes of five of nine birds examined using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Humoral antibodies were detected in only one of these birds. In the intranasally infected group, serum antibody levels ranging in titre from 0.62 log2 to 6.2 log2 were found in four of nine birds examined over seven to 14 days following infection. Nine of the birds in this group were shown to have low concentrations of antibodies (0.50 log2 to 6.33 log2) in the tracheal washings. The demonstration of antibodies in the tracheal washings, but not in the serum of nine birds examined, suggested that a local immune response had occurred. However, these studies have shown that antibodies present on the tracheal surface can also be derived from antibodies given intraperitoneally.     

Heart disease as a cause of death in insured Swedish dogs younger than 10 years of age

BACKGROUND: Population-based information on disease occurrence is paramount in clinical decision making and in designing preventative measures, but such information is scarce. HYPOTHESIS: The risk of cardiac death is higher in certain breeds and mortality varies by age and sex. DOGS: Dogs that were life insured by an animal insurance company between 1995 and 2002. METHODS: The mortality pattern for heart disease in insured dogs up to 10 years of age was studied. The influences of sex, age, breed, month, and geographic location were investigated by means of incidence rates, proportions, and survival proportions. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to model time to heart disease. RESULTS: 405,376 dogs contributed to a denominator of 1,431,933 dog-years at risk (DYAR) and 3,049 dogs had been assigned a cardiac-related diagnosis as cause of death. The cardiac-related mortality for dogs <10 years of age, was 21.3 deaths per 10,000 DYAR. This mortality in males and females was 27.3 deaths and 15.4 deaths per 10,000 DYAR, respectively. Twelve of 54 breeds had a point estimate above the overall rate. The 3 breeds with the highest point estimates were: Irish Wolfhounds, Cavalier King Charles Spaniels, and Great Danes (rates of 356, 247, and 179 deaths per 10,000 DYAR, respectively). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Breed, age, and sex affect cardiac mortality in certain breeds of dogs, but no effects of month and geographic location were identified. These findings can assist clinicians in establishing diagnoses, and can assist breeders in defining priorities for preventative measures.     

Causes of preweaning mortality on a large intensive piggery

Causes of preweaning mortality were examined on a large intensive piggery. Diagnosis was made using comprehensive clinical histories combined with post-mortem data. Two thousand four hundred and twenty-six piglets were born in 238 litters. Pre-parturient and parturient losses were 2.9% and 5.4% of the total numbers of piglets born. Birth to weaning mortality was 11.3%. Among piglets born alive, overlaying was the most frequent cause of death (2.1%), followed by deaths due to diarrhoea (1.7%), anaemia (1.2%), savaging (1.1%) and losses of small weak piglets (0.9%). Most deaths, including stillbirths, were associated with below average birth weight, and two-thirds of all deaths of liveborn pigs occurred within 4 days of birth. Increased litter size resulted in decreased birth weights, an increased percentage of stillborn piglets and mummified foetuses, but duration of parturition was not affected. Stillborn piglets were born late in the litter and after a longer interval between pigs born (interpig interval). Over 70% of deaths due to overlay were in previously healthy piglets, but some were associated with illness of the sow (18%) or both sow and piglet (3%). Savaging was confined mainly to first parity sows and was responsible for 20% of all deaths in these litters. Sixty-two per cent of all piglets with a birth weight of less than 800g were stillborn or died before weaning compared with 18.7% mortality for all piglets. Anaemia in piglets was considered to be due to umbilical haemorrhage. Anaemic piglets had a 36% mortality to weaning compared with 10% for non-anaemic piglets.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

An epidemiological study of sheep deaths before and during export by sea from Western Australia

A study was conducted to record the deaths that occurred during export, and to examine the temporal pattern of pellet feeding in the feedlot and ascertain the variation in mortality between groups of sheep from different farms. Between November 1985 and April 1987, 5 cohorts of sheep were selected on arrival at a feedlot before live export by sea from Western Australia to the Middle East. Each cohort consisted of 4,118 to 9,612 Merino wethers from 15 to 35 farms (lines). There were few deaths during trucking to the feedlot (rate 0.9, range 0.0 to 3.0 per 10,000 sheep) and during lot-feeding (rate 6.2, range 1.2 to 12.2 per 10,000 sheep). Most of the deaths occurred aboard ship (rate 210.7, range 152.7 to 271.5 per 10,000 sheep). The proportion of sheep that ate pelleted feed increased with increasing length of time in the feedlot. By the end of lot-feeding the percentage of sheep that had not eaten pellets was 23.3, 4.4, 1.2, 2.1 and 0.2 in a representative sample of each of the 5 cohorts. It was considered that offering hay throughout lot-feeding was undesirable for the purpose of maximising the number of sheep that ate pellets before loading on the ship. Half of the deaths aboard ship occurred in 25% of 133 lines of sheep in the 5 cohorts. In each cohort the median per cent death rate (and range) per line was 1.3 (0.3 to 11.9), 1.1 (0.0 to 5.7), 1.8 (0.0 to 6.8), 2.3 (0.0 to 14.3) and 0.9 (0.1 to 5.4).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Deaths in sheep exported by sea from Western Australia - analysis of ship Master''s reports

Mortality reports were studied for 181 shipments of live sheep from Western Australia to the Middle East and Singapore in 1985 and 1986. Samples of pelleted feed for 93 shipments were analysed for quality. Overall death rate in the 6.46 million sheep exported in the period of the study was 2.18%. In sheep bound for the Middle East, most of the deaths occurred during the voyage (overall rate 1.7%, range 0.4-4.4% per shipment), although substantial mortality was recorded during discharge (rate 0.4%, range 0.0-1.8%). There were few deaths during loading (rate 0.07%, range 0.0-0.8%). Deaths in sheep bound for Singapore were almost 10-fold lower than those sent to the Middle East. Several findings suggested that ship design and management may contribute to mortality. Death rates were invariably low on some ships and often high on others. Death rates were nearly always higher in enclosed decks than in open decks on 4 vessels, and point epidemics of mortality were observed in several shipments. Temperature and relative humidity measured on the ship's bridge were not closely related to daily death rate. Antibiotics estimated to cost $226,000 were used during 33 voyages in 1986 and were considered of dubious efficacy on shipboard mortality. Analysis of feed pellets used on ship showed that the quality of the diet was within the range set by draft national standards for pellets used in the live sheep export industry.     

Metomidate as sole anaesthetic agent in tawny owls.

Metomidate 1 per cent was administered intramuscularly as the sole anaesthetic agent on 22 occasions to seven tawny owls (Strix aluco). Four deaths occurred, none on the first administration. ECG findings and details of dosage are provided. The possible causes of death are discussed.     

Cost analysis of immunisation against East Coast fever on smallholder dairy farms in Kenya

A spreadsheet model was developed and used to estimate the total cost of immunising cattle against East Coast fever (ECF) based on the infection-and-treatment method. Using data from an immunisation trial carried out on 102 calves and yearlings on 64 farms in the Githunguri division, Kiambu district, Kenya, a reference base scenario of a mean herd of five animals, a 10% rate of reaction to immunisation and a 2-day interval monitoring regimen (a total of 10 farm visits) was simulated. Under these conditions, the mean cost of immunisation per animal was US$16.48 (Ksh 955.78); this was equivalent to US$82.39 (Ksh 4778.90) per five-animal farm. A commonly reported reactor rate of 3% would decrease the cost to US$14.63 (Ksh 848.29) per animal. Reducing the number of farm monitoring visits from 10 to 7 would reduce the total cost by 10%, justified if farmers are trained to undertake some of the monitoring work. The fixed costs were 53% of the total cost of immunisation per farm. The cost of immunisation decreased with increasing number of animals per farm, showing economies of scale.     

Comparisons of endocrinological and testis parameters in 18-month-old Ile de France and Romanov rams

Endocrinological and testis parameters of adult 18-month-old Ile de France (IF) and Romanov (Ro) rams were compared during sexual season. Testis weights, total volumes of intertubular tissue, and of blood and lymph vessels, total seminiferous tubule length, rete testis flow rate and daily production of germ cells were significantly higher in IF than in Ro rams. These variations originated from differences in Sertoli cell numbers, which were established before puberty. When daily productions of germ cells, of ABP or of RTF were expressed per Sertoli cell, they were higher in Ro than in IF rams. Quality of spermatids, as measured by their cellular size prior to elongation, was lower in Ro than in IF. The number of FSH-binding sites per Sertoli did not differ between the two breeds but FSH plasma levels were higher in Ro than in IF rams. Total numbers of Leydig cells per testis, their individual size or their LH-binding capacity did not differ significantly between the two breeds. However, the ratio of mean testosterone upon mean LH plasma levels were greater in Ro than in IF rams while both breeds had identical LH mean plasma levels.