Animal transport in Europe--scope and trends

In order to evaluate the importance of animal transports in the European Union, the figures on intra-Community trade, exports and imports can be used. In 1999, around 14.5 million animals (cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, horses) have been traded between Member States; the imports from third countries totalled 2.1 million heads and the exports to third countries 437.000 heads. The pattern of intra-Community trade is characterised by a clear trade flow from the Northern to the Southern Member Countries; the majority of the imports is coming from the Middle- and East European countries. Over the last few years, the annual volume of animal transports has been relatively stable, with the exception of cattle exports, where a significant reduction has taken place as from 1997.     

Contingency planning: preparation of contingency plans

Outbreaks of infectious animal diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease, classical swine fever, Newcastle disease and avian influenza may have a devastating impact, not only on the livestock sector and the rural community in the directly affected areas, but also beyond agriculture and nation wide. The risk of introducing disease pathogens into a country and the spread of the agent within a country depends on a number of factors including import controls, movement of animals and animal products and the biosecurity applied by livestock producers. An adequate contingency plan is an important instrument in the preparation for and the handling of an epidemic. The legislation of the European Union requires that all Member States draw up a contingency plan which specifies the national measures required to maintain a high level of awareness and preparedness and is to be implemented in the event of disease outbreak. This paper describes the main elements to be included in the contingency plans submitted by Member States to the European Commission for approval.     

The expanding role of animal welfare within EU legislation and beyond

Animal welfare is being accorded an increasingly important role in today's civil society. Within the EU, this has been enshrined within the specific “Protocol on Protection and Welfare of Animals” annexed to the EC Treaty, obliging Member States and the EU Institutions to pay full regard to the welfare of animals when formulating and implementing Community legislation. There is a growing body of EU legislation on this issue, founded on sound scientific principles (including the role of EFSA in providing independent scientific advice), taking account of public concerns, stakeholder input and possible socio-economic implications. Recent CAP reforms also testify to animal welfare's growing stature in policy-making, with the introduction of the principle of cross-compliance regarding eligibility for direct payments and additional financial incentives for producers to achieve higher standards. Animal welfare is being increasingly perceived as an integral element of overall food quality, having important knock-on effects on animal health and food safety. On a worldwide level, the OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health) has embarked on an initiative to develop global animal welfare guidelines and standards mandated by 167 member countries and the issue remains on the agenda for future WTO negotiations. Consumers demand higher standards of animal protection and it is incumbent upon policy-makers and legislators to respond accordingly.     

Modeling alternative mitigation strategies for a hypothetical outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in the United States

Alternative mitigation strategies were compared during hypothetical outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in the USA using a computer-simulation model. The epidemiologic and economic consequences were compared during these simulated outbreaks. Three vaccination and four slaughter strategies were studied along with two speeds of FMD virus spread among three susceptible populations of animals. The populations represented typical animal demographics in the United States.The best strategy depended on the speed of spread of FMD virus and the demographics of the susceptible population. Slaughter of herds in contact with known contagious herds was less costly than slaughtering only contagious herds. Slaughtering in 3 km rings around contagious herds was consistently more costly than other slaughter strategies. Ring vaccination in 10 km rings was judged more costly than slaughter alone in most situations. Although early ring vaccination resulted in lower government costs and duration in fast-spread scenarios, it was more costly when vaccinated animals were slaughtered with indemnity and other related slaughter costs.     

Introduction to classical swine fever: virus, disease and control policy

Classical swine fever virus is a spherical enveloped particle of about 40-60 nm in diameter with a single stranded RNA genome of about 12,300 bases with positive polarity, classified as a pestivirus within the family Flaviviridae. Natural hosts are domestic and wild pigs. The virus causes one of the most severe diseases in pigs world wide with grave economic consequences. The clinical picture of classical swine fever is variable, depending on the age of the affected animals and viral virulence. The virus is well characterised and reliable laboratory diagnostic procedures are available. In many parts of the world live attenuated vaccines are being used as a safe and efficient prophylactic tool. However, in EU Member States and several other countries vaccination is prohibited and CSF is controlled by a strict stamping out policy. In order to overcome the disadvantages of conventional vaccination inactivated marker vaccines have been developed that enable the distinction between vaccinated and infected animals. Whether these vaccines will be accepted as an additional tool in the framework of the stamping out policy is not yet decided.     

Use of vaccination against enteric septicemia of catfish and columnaris disease by the U.S. catfish industry

Vaccination is an effective strategy used for the protection of food animals against infectious diseases. A 2010 U.S. Department of Agriculture questionnaire examined U.S. catfish industry use (in 2009) of two commercial vaccines that provide protection against enteric septicemia of catfish (ESC) and columnaris disease, catfish producers' opinions regarding the percentage of vaccinated fish they expect to be protected, and producers' general expectations regarding survival of vaccinated fish compared with unvaccinated fish. During 2009, 9.7% of the total fingerling operations used one or both vaccines; 12.3% of the total industry fry production was vaccinated against ESC, and 17.0% was vaccinated against columnaris disease. Of the producers who grew food-sized catfish to harvest, 6.7% used vaccinated catfish. The farms that did not use vaccinated fish for grow out had a mean size of 63.4 water surface hectares (156.6 water surface acres). The operations that used vaccinated fish were larger (mean size = 206.6 water surface hectares, or 510.6 water surface acres). The producers that stocked ESC-vaccinated fish for grow out represented 19.0% of the total water surface area of food fish production; producers that stocked columnaris-vaccinated fish represented 16.6% of the total area. Of the producers that stocked ESC-vaccinated catfish, 41.9% thought that survival was better in vaccinated fish than in unvaccinated fish; of the producers that stocked columnaris-vaccinated catfish, 46.2% thought that vaccinated fish displayed better survival. However, 37.5% of producers that used the ESC vaccine and 39.7% of producers that used the columnaris vaccine did not know whether vaccination improved survival rates. When all producers were asked about their expectations regarding the percentage of vaccinated fish that would be protected from disease, 52.4% responded that they expected 100% of their fish to be protected. More producer information about reasonable expectations regarding vaccine efficacy, the conditions under which immunosuppression and vaccine failure can occur, and assessment of vaccine performance may result in increased use of vaccination as a tool for the catfish industry.     

Protection of domestic animals from infectious diseases in an economic community without control at the interior borders--an orientation

In relation to the plans for introducing the free inner market in the Member States of the EEC the principles for the future veterinary control of domestic animals and animal products are described. The traditional frontier control will be replaced by official primary control at the place of production (herd of origin, slaughter house, dairy etc.). The technical conditions are described: Effective disease surveillance and notification, eradication and control schemes for contagious diseases, control of animals in relation to trade. Decentralized veterinary control stations have the best possibility to carry out these functions. They should be staffed and equipped with special regard to the structure of the animal population and the production systems in the area concerned. The EEC-Commission has the task to coordinate and standardize this work with the national veterinary services. It is essential that this work functions identically everywhere in the Community. The herd owner should introduce common measures for protecting his animals against infectious diseases. This could be done by veterinary advisers within the frame of voluntary animal health schemes.     

Response to an emerging vector-borne disease: Surveillance and preparedness for Schmallenberg virus

Surveillance for new emerging animal diseases from a European perspective is complicated by the non-harmonised approach across Member States for data capture, recording livestock populations and case definitions. In the summer of 2011, a new vector-borne Orthobunyavirus emerged in Northern Europe and for the first time, a coordinated approach to horizon scanning, risk communication, data and diagnostic test sharing allowed EU Member States to develop early predictions of the disease, its impact and risk management options. There are many different systems in place across the EU for syndromic and scanning surveillance and the differences in these systems have presented epidemiologists and risk assessors with concerns about their combined use in early identification of an emerging disease. The emergence of a new disease always will raise challenging issues around lack of capability and lack of knowledge; however, Schmallenberg virus (SBV) gave veterinary authorities an additional complex problem: the infection caused few clinical signs in adult animals, with no indication of the possible source and little evidence about its spread or means of transmission. This paper documents the different systems in place in some of the countries (Germany and the Netherlands) which detected disease initially and predicted its spread (to the UK) and how information sharing helped to inform early warning and risk assessment for Member States. Microarray technology was used to identify SBV as a new pathogen and data from the automated cattle milking systems coupled with farmer-derived data on reporting non-specific clinical signs gave the first indications of a widespread issue while the UK used meteorological modelling to map disease incursion. The coordinating role of both EFSA and the European Commission were vital as are the opportunities presented by web-based publishing for disseminating information to industry and the public. The future of detecting emerging disease looks more positive in the light of this combined approach in the EU.     

Preparedness for major OIE-listed epidemics: implementation of simulation exercises

Large-scale outbreaks of animal disease cause mass death of animals, a devastating economic impact on livestock industries and communities and furthermore often great distress for owners and keepers of animals. Such large-scale outbreaks have, during the last decade, been experienced by certain EU Member States in pigs caused by classical swine fever outbreaks, in ruminants and pigs due to foot and mouth disease and in poultry as a result of infections by avian influenza virus. With the aim of preventing introduction of the OIE former list A diseases and enhance disease preparedness most European countries have in recent years adopted contingency plans and conducted simulation exercises. Simulation exercises will, in this paper, be discussed with special references to: objectives, scope of exercises, preparation of scenarios, tasks to be performed by participants, the need for facilities, management of exercises and the work of the supervisory team.     

West Nile virus: lessons from the 21st century

Introduction: West Nile virus (WNV) first appeared in the United States in 1999, causing illness and death in birds, horses, and humans. While the initial outbreak of this sometimes deadly viral disease was limited to the northeastern United States, the virus had an inexorable migration across the continental United States over the next 3 years, causing huge losses among the affected species. The purpose of this review is to present currently available information regarding the epi‐demiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of WNV infection. Veterinarians, particularly those in an emergency practice, serve as an important source of reliable information regarding this disease for animal owners and the public in general. Data sources: Data sources used for the preparation of this review include computer‐based searches of PubMed and Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux (CAB) abstracts. A search in PubMed using ‘West Nile’ retrieved 1468 ‘hits’ or references, while a similar search in CAB abstracts produced 815 references. Additional information was obtained from various meeting proceedings, particularly data presented in abstract form, and from the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) website dedicated to WNV. Human data synthesis: Prior to the mid‐1990s, reported large‐scale epidemics of WNV infection in humans predominantly presented as acute, mild, febrile disease, sometimes associated with lymphadenopathy and skin rash. The recent large epidemic in the United States, in contrast, has prominently featured encephalitis, particularly among the elderly. Additionally, polio‐encephalomyelitis‐like complications resulting in long‐term neurologic sequelae have been reported. There are many WNV‐permissive native avian and mosquito hosts in the Unites States and there appear to be few limitations to the spread of the disease in the United States. It is expected that the virus will be identified in all 48 continental states, Mexico, and Canada by the end of 2003. Veterinary data synthesis: The horse is the animal species most affected by the recent WNV epidemic in the United States, and losses to the equine industry have been large and unprecedented. A United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)‐approved vaccine against WNV has been in use in horses since 2001 and appears to be effective in limiting the incidence of disease in well‐vaccinated populations. WNV infection has been documented in other species of mammals, including camelids (alpaca/llamas) and dogs, and veterinarians should include WNV as a differential diagnosis for animals presenting with clinical signs consistent with central nervous system infection. A large concern exists for endangered bird populations, particularly birds of prey, whether in zoos or in the wild.     

The airborne dispersal of foot-and-mouth disease virus from vaccinated and recovered pigs, cattle and sheep after exposure to infection.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus was detected during two periods in the air of looseboxes which housed susceptible, vaccinated or recovered pigs, cattle or sheep exposed to infection. The first was 30 min to 22 h after exposure and occurred in all animals. The second was two to seven days after exposure and occurred with those susceptible and vaccinated animals which developed clinical lesions, and with vaccinated and recovered pigs and sheep, which did not develop clinical lesions. Vaccination of animals before exposure resulted in less or no virus being detected. The virus during the first period was attributed to virus trapped on the animal during exposure, and the virus during the second period to limited multiplication in the respiratory tract. Control of movement for two weeks after contact with infection is suggested as a means of preventing spread of foot-and-mouth disease in areas that contain vaccinated animals.     

Legislation for the control of avian influenza in the European union

In the light of experience gained with avian influenza (AI) outbreaks in Europe and elsewhere in the world, the European Union (EU) legislation has recently been updated. The strategy to control the introduction and spread of AI relies on rapid disease detection, killing of infected birds, movement restrictions for live birds and their products, cleaning and disinfection and vaccination. Measures are not only to be implemented in case of outbreaks of highly pathogenic AI (HPAI), but are now also directed against occurrence of low pathogenic AI of H5 and H7 (LPAI) subtypes in poultry, albeit in a modified manner proportionate to the risk posed by these pathotypes. Enhanced surveillance in poultry holdings and wild birds, as well as preventive vaccination, has also been introduced. EU Measures are flexible and largely based on risk assessment of the local epidemiological situation. The occurrence of HPAI H5N1 of the Asian lineage in the EU and its unprecedented spread by wild migratory birds necessitated the adoption of additional control measures. Although HPAI H5N1 has affected wild birds and poultry holdings in several EU Member States, EU legislation and its implementation in Member States has so far successfully limited the impact of the disease on animal and human health.     

Development, aims and status quo of the EU animal disease law

The development of EC legislation is outlined using swine fever and foot and mouth disease as an example, starting with the possibility of vaccinating against both animal diseases in the 1980s without substantially restricting trade with vaccinated animals or products of these animals, right up to a policy of non-vaccination with the realisation of the single market with significant restrictions on intra-Community trade if the option of an emergency vaccination were to be used.The restrictions associated with emergency vaccination are basically tantamount to a vaccination ban. To that extent, vaccination needs to be taken into consideration as an instrument of animal disease control under the EU animal health legislation currently being discussed, the aim being for vaccinated animals that have tested as virus-free to be able to be marketed without any restrictions. This will, however, only be possible if all stakeholders (EU, member states, World Organisation for Animal Health, industry, consumers) achieve a broad consensus.     

Vaccination of llamas, Llama glama, with an experimental killed encephalomyocarditis virus vaccine

Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) is a pandemic virus that has caused mortality in numerous captive wildlife species worldwide. An experimental killed vaccine was created from two EMCV isolates associated with zoo animal mortality in the southern United States. The vaccine was tested for safety and efficacy in eleven llamas (Llama glama). All animals received an initial vaccination and a second booster vaccination 4 wk later. Serum antibody responses were monitored at initial vaccination and at 4 wks, 8 wk, 6 mo, and 12 mo postvaccination. Eight of the 11 llamas vaccinated experienced at least a 4-fold increase in serum antibody titers to EMCV. Antibody titers of those eight animals remained elevated above prevaccination levels when measured at 12 mo. The experimental killed EMCV vaccine tested may be a useful tool to prevent EMCV infection in llamas when given in 2 doses 4 wk apart, and then revaccinated or with antibody levels monitored annually thereafter.     

Evaluation of cross-protection by immunization with an experimental trivalent companion animal periodontitis vaccine in the mouse periodontitis model

Companion animal periodontal disease is one of the most prevalent diseases seen by veterinarians. The goal of this study was to evaluate the vaccine performance of a trivalent canine periodontitis vaccine in the mouse oral challenge model of periodontitis. Mice vaccinated subcutaneously with an inactivated, whole-cell vaccine preparation of Porphyromonas denticanis, Porphyromonas gulae, and Porphyromonas salivosa displayed significantly reduced alveolar bone loss in response to heterologous and cross-species challenges as compared to sham vaccinated animals. Based on the results of these studies, a periodontitis vaccine may be a useful tool in preventing the initiation and progression of periodontitis caused by the most commonly isolated pigmenting anaerobic bacteria in animals.     

Verification of the protective effect of a toxoid vaccine against edema disease of weaned piglets in an infection model

105 piglets (56 vaccinated and 49 control animals) were utilized in 6 consecutive experiments. Each used litter was divided randomly into vaccine and control animals. One week prior to weaning each of the 56 piglets of the vaccine groups received 5 mg of nonpurified toxin treated with glutaraldehyd subcutaneously whereas to the remaining 49 control animals an extract of apathogenic E. coli was administered. During the first 12 hours post weaning each of the 105 piglets was challenged perorally with 10(10) cfu of edema principle toxin producing germs of E. coli serogroup O 139. 23 animals of the control groups (46.9%) and one animal of vaccine groups (1.8%) died due to the infection between days four and five post challenge. These control animals showed classical clinical symptoms as well as pathological findings typical for edema disease. In contrast, such findings as mentioned before could not be observed in the vaccinated piglets. The remaining part of the control animals and eight of those vaccinated ones exhibited edema disease symptoms. The vaccinated animals have shed the challenge strain one to three days, while the survivals of control groups shed those germs for two to six days. The vaccinated piglets showed a better growth rate than the remaining control animals. Presented data suggest that our toxoid immunizing procedure can be used successfully against edema disease of swine.     

Assessment of efficacy of a bivalent BTV-2 and BTV-4 inactivated vaccine by vaccination and challenge in cattle

The efficacy of a bivalent inactivated vaccine against bluetongue virus (BTV) serotypes 2 (BTV-2) and 4 (BTV-4) was evaluated in cattle by general and local examination, serological follow-up, and challenge. Thirty-two 4-month-old calves were randomly allocated into 2 groups of 16 animals each. One group was vaccinated subcutaneously (s/c) with two injections of bivalent inactivated vaccine at a 28-day interval, and the second group was left unvaccinated and used as control. Sixty-five days after first vaccination, 8 vaccinated and 8 unvaccinated calves were s/c challenged with 1 mL of 6.2 Log10 TCID50/mL of an Italian field isolate of BTV serotype 2, while the remaining 8 vaccinated and 8 unvaccinated animals were challenged by 1 mL of 6.2 Log10 TCID50/mL of an Italian field isolate of BTV serotype 4. Three additional calves were included in the study and used as sentinels to confirm that no BTV was circulating locally. At the time of the challenge, only one vaccinated animal did not have neutralizing antibodies against BTV-4, while the remaining 15 showed titres of at least 1:10 for either BTV-2 or BTV-4. However, the BTV-2 component of the inactivated vaccine elicited a stronger immune response in terms of both the number of virus neutralization (VN) positive animals and antibody titres. After challenge, no animal showed signs of disease. Similarly, none of the vaccinated animals developed detectable viraemia while bluetongue virus serotype 2 and 4 titres were detected in the circulating blood of all unvaccinated animals, commencing on day 3 post-challenge and lasting 16 days. It is concluded that administration of the bivalent BTV-2 and BTV-4 inactivated vaccine resulted in a complete prevention of detectable viraemia in all calves when challenged with high doses of BTV-2 or BTV-4.     

Novel purification method for recombinant 3AB1 nonstructural protein of foot-and-mouth disease virus for use in differentiation between infected and vaccinated animals.

An indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed for differentiation of animals infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) from vaccinated animals. The test was based on a highly pure and concentrated preparation of recombinant 3AB1 protein obtained by expression in a prokaryotic system, protein separation by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and electro elution. Experimental- and field-serum samples from naive, vaccinated, and infected cattle were tested for anti3AB1 antibody using the ELISA. A cutoff level was set at 35% of the maximum absorbance obtained with a positive control serum (FMDV-infected animal, 21 days postinfection [dpi]). This assay could detect antibodies from sera of animals experimentally infected by contact (n = 118) with a sensitivity of 97.5%. The specificity was 100%, based on negative test results obtained on 109 sera from naive animals. Remarkably, all sera from animals vaccinated either once (n = 102) or twice (n = 30) were negative. In addition, this 3AB1-ELISA could detect seroconversion at 7 dpi in animals inoculated intradermolingually. This assay constitutes an important tool for the rapid detection of FMDV outbreaks in a vaccinated population. In addition, it presents a reliable, economical, and simple method for testing large numbers of serum samples.     

Perspectives on BVD eradication in Germany

Infections with the bovine virus diarrhoea (BVD) virus are endemic with high seroprevalence in many countries of the European Union (EU). The significant economic damage caused by BVD infections has led to a paradigm shift with respect to a possible control. In some EU Member States control programmes have been initiated mostly on a voluntary basis and some compulsory. The most important element of all control efforts is the identification and removal of persistently infected (PI) animals. The subsequent steps depend on the respective seroprevalence and cattle density. Sweden was one of the first countries to introduce a national control program (1993), that is now being used as standard procedure in other countries. The starting position for the program was comparatively favorable since the country's cattle density is low and vaccination was not allowed. BVD infected herds were screened using a bulk milk ELISA and subsequently the PI animals in positive herds were identified and removed. The goal of the control program is the cattle population's certified freedom of BVD. The Scandinavian model is not applicable for most regions of Germany, since BVD virus prevalence and cattle density are unfavorably high. Here the primary goal is to minimize the economic losses caused by BVD and to lower the infective pressure. Therefore a Federal guideline was issued and some Federal States have provided additional regulations for compensation of PI animals and additional costs, respectively. Primary goal of the guideline is the eradication of PI animals and the systematic vaccination of all female offspring in order to avoid further economic damage and the emergence of new PI animals in case of re-infection of the herd. Goal of this strategy is the BVD unsuspicious herd with a high immune status.     

The new E.U. Animal Transport Regulation: improved welfare and health or increased administration?

There is public discussion of the new E.U. Animal Transport Regulation No 1/2005 of Dec. 2004 and its advantages and draw-backs. This Regulation is no longer a Directive, so that it is directly applicable in the Members States. Although the Regulation is recognised to have great potential to improve welfare and health of transported animals, it will also increase administrative work. Most improvements will come through better education and the increased responsibilities of animal attendants, drivers, keepers and transport organisers, and through the stricter control mechanisms (log book, training, instructions etc.) and the introduction of the GPS control systems to further enhance the transparency of animal movements. The formats of the transport certificates used in all Member States will be harmonised. Technical records will be kept on air temperature and water consumption. Contact offices in all member states for transport affairs will improve the exchange of data between the responsible authorities and harmonise control and surveillance practice. Specific regulations are now in place for horses (broken, unbroken, registered) and for the transport age of young animals (piglets, lambs, calves, foals). In spite of some substantial improvements there are still significant gaps in our knowledge of both normal and long transports, for example optimal journey times, food and water supply on long transports, environmental factors such as vibration, motion, light and ventilation requirements in different European geographical regions. The same is true for the epidemiological aspects of the prevention of disease transmission; for example, very little is known about the bacterial and particulate emissions of the animal transport vehicles which travel across Europe. A serious drawback of the regulation is the fact that it does not abolish the unloading of animals on long transports to rest for 24 h at staging points, so that the concomitant risks to health and welfare remain, as do the opportunities for the transmission of infectious diseases at these stations. Two examples are given that demonstrate the physiological (heart rate) and biochemical (cortisol) reactions of cattle during transport. It seems useful to observe how the new Regulation affects practice and to assess the usefulness and practicability of the new rules after one or two years of operation. At the same time, more detailed research should be carried out in order to further adapt the Regulation to the needs of the animal species and gender in terms of travel time periods, food supply and resting schemes. This should also include reconsideration of loading and unloading rules in staging points on long journeys for all animals, particularly in view of risks of injury and transmission of infectious diseases. Investigations should be carried out to improve our understanding of the bio-aerosol emissions from driving and standing vehicles. Transport schemes on long journeys should be more closely adapted to the needs of the animals. The new Regulation represents another step forward toward improved animal welfare during transport in spite of some increase in the administrative measures required. It is necessary to bring together veterinary and animal science, engineering, logistics and practical and technical experience in order to improve the Regulation and the health and welfare of animals during transport.