Development of national crop wild relative conservation strategies in European countries

To generate European-wide information to contribute to the improvement of national and regional crop wild relative (CWR) conservation planning and the development of effective CWR conservation strategies, a questionnaire was sent to the members of the Wild Species Conservation in Genetic Reserves Working Group of the European Cooperative Programme for Plant Genetic Resources (ECPGR) to collate information on progress in developing and implementing national CWR conservation strategies and action plans. Responses from 30 countries were analysed and literature sources were consulted to fill some information gaps. Results showed that 13 countries were in the preparation stage of their national strategies, i.e. having no drafts prepared yet, 14 in higher stages (from the first draft prepared to the published and approved ones), and three have not yet started the planning process. Twelve countries included all categories of species autochthony (i.e., native, archaeophyte and neophyte) in their priority CWR lists. Wild relatives of human and animal food crops were selected as the highest priorities by 23 and 22 countries, respectively. Relative level of threat was identified as the most important prioritization criterion by 23 countries. Italy reported the highest number of CWR in its national checklist (10,779 taxa) and priority list (1118 taxa), whereas Ireland reported the lowest number of CWR in its checklist (171 taxa) and Portugal reported the lowest number in its priority list (20 taxa). Regarding the percentages of prioritized CWR, the strictest approach was applied in Portugal—only 20 out of 2262 CWR taxa, or < 1%, were selected as priorities for conservation action, whereas in Spain 578 out of 929 CWR taxa, or about 62% were prioritized. Eleven countries have proposed the establishment of genetic reserves, from one per country (Israel) to an extended network (Germany and the Netherlands). Only the UK had a formally established genetic reserve. The highest number of priority CWR taxa that occur in existing protected areas was reported by Spain—472 species, or 82% of the national priority list, whereas the lowest number—14 species, or 70% of the national priority list—in Portugal. Israel reported the highest number of priority CWR taxa (319 or 98%) conserved in gene banks. Among the limitations in the development of national CWR strategies highlighted by countries, was the lack of an EU agency responsible for genetic resources. The development of CWR conservation strategies is mostly within the domains of agriculture (13 countries) and environment (12 countries), although both domains are involved in eight countries. The most successful results in the development and implementation of CWR conservations strategies are achieved in the countries where multiple stakeholders, including ministries, research institutions, NGOs, local communities, protected area authorities and national PGR committees are involved. Some discussion and conclusions regarding further developments are provided.     

Development of a national crop wild relative conservation strategy for Cyprus

Growing research interest in crop wild relatives (CWR) has highlighted their value for crop improvement, particularly to mitigate the impact of climate change and contribute to global food security. As most conservation activities are implemented at national level there is a requirement for each country to develop and implement a national CWR conservation strategy. This will contribute to regional and global CWR conservation actions and so help achieve CBD Aichi Targets 13 of improved genetic conservation of socio-economically important taxa. Cyprus has historically lacked systematic CWR conservation but is rich in CWR diversity being located in the eastern Mediterranean Vavilov centre and abutting the Fertile Crescent. Therefore a more coherent approach to CWR conservation is desirable. From an initial checklist of 1,722 Cypriot CWR taxa, 178 CWR were prioritized and eco geographic data was collated and analysed using GIS techniques. The Troodos and Pafos mountains are CWR hotspots and ten priority sites containing the genetic diversity of 74.7 % of priority CWR taxa were identified. These will form the basis of a national network of in situ genetic reserves and 78 priority CWR taxa that have no accessions in the national Cyprus gene bank are highlighted for collection and ex situ storage.     

A prioritised inventory of crop wild relatives and wild harvested plants of Tunisia

Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution - An inventory of crop wild relatives (CWR) and wild harvested plants (WHP) occurring in Tunisia, based on the integration of the last available floristic...     

Setting conservation priorities for crop wild relatives in the Fertile Crescent

The aim of this paper is to contribute directly to the systematic, long-term conservation of crop wild relatives (CWR) in the Fertile Crescent by setting conservation priorities to secure and improve CWR conservation in situ and ex situ as a means of underpinning global food security. We established the first priority list of CWR within the Fertile Crescent following several criteria comprising production value (m × p), projected production value (m × p), production area (ha), projected production area (ha), native status, energy supply (kcal/capita/day), protein supply (g/capita/day), fat supply (g/capita/day), occurrence status, gene pool, taxon group, and threat status. An inventory of 220 priority CWR was established for the Fertile Crescent region. We followed twelve prioritisation approaches and assessed 21,080 species. About 4% of the total species (835 species) were identified as CWR that have socio-economic value for the region. These 835 CWR species were prioritised to create the CWR priority list which consisted of 220 species (1% of the total species assessed). The majority of the CWR priority list (185 species) were related to cereal, vegetable, and industrial crops and 35 of them are related to fruits and trees. The CWR priority list includes crop wild relatives of the genera Aegilops (20 species), Lactuca (11 species), Avena (11 species), Carthamus (11 species), Allium (9 species), Thinopyrum (10 species), and Triticum (3 species). We present the first inventory of 220 priority CWR for the Fertile Crescent. The inventory helps to improve in situ and ex situ conservation and the genetic diversity of CWR. Both the inventory and the methodology applied in prioritisation can be used in setting national, regional, and global conservation strategies. The recommendations will help the Fertile Crescent meet its targets in conserving CWR diversity as well as making sure that CWR genetic resources are preserved to prevent and tackle global food insecurity.     

Towards the conservation of crop wild relative diversity in North Africa: checklist,prioritisation and inventory

Crop wild relatives (CWR) are wild species that are more or less genetically related to crops that can be used to introgress useful genes for improvement of productivity, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and quality of cultivated crops. They are important in crop improvement to achieve food security for an increasing population and to overcome the challenges caused by climate change and the new virulence of major diseases and pests. These genetic resources are increasingly threatened in their natural habitats through over-exploitation and land reclamation and degradation. Therefore, their efficient and effective conservation would be taxonomically and genetically valuable and will contribute to maintaining and promoting the sustainability of crop diversity, facilitating agricultural production and supporting the increasing demand for food, feed and natural resources. A checklist of 5780 Crop Wild Relatives (CWR) taxa from North Africa was obtained using the CWR Catalogue for Europe and the Mediterranean (PGR Forum). Of which consists 76% of the flora of North Africa. The checklist contains 5588 (~97%) native taxa and 192 introduced. Families with higher taxa richness are Fabaceae, Asteraceae, and Poaceae. These three families constitute more than 33% of the total taxa included in the checklist. About 9% (502) CWR taxa identified as a priority for conservation in North Africa using four criteria, the economic value of the crop, the relatedness degree of wild relatives to their crop, threat status using IUCN red list assessment, and finally the centre of origin and/or diversity of the crop. Of these, 112 taxa were assigned high, 268 medium and 122 low priorities for effective conservation. Those assessed as threatened using IUCN Red list and national assessment represent approximately 2% (119 taxa) of the CWR in the region. However, 21 taxa are assessed as critically endangered (CR), 53 as endangered (EN), and 45 as vulnerable (VU). Wild relatives of some globally important crops are present, with those related to wheat (Triticum aestivum L. and T. durum L.) and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) among the highest priority crops for the North Africa region. Amongst CWR assessed as threatened, only 8 (6.7%) CWR are related to food crops, Avena agadiriana B.R. Baum. et G. Fedak (VU), A. atlantica B.R. Baum et G. Fedak (VU), A. murphyi Ladiz. (EN), Beta macrocarpa Guss. (EN), Olea europaea subsp. maroccana Guss. (VU), Rorippa hayanica Maire (VU) and Aegilops bicornis (Forssk.) Jaub. et Spach (VU). The wild relative of Safflower Carthamus glaucus M. Bieb is restricted to Egypt and Libya and assessed as rare in Egypt. The information available about the conservation and threat status of CWR in North Africa still lags behind, and more investigations are required.     

Conserving the genetic resources of crop wild relatives in European Protected Areas

European native plant diversity is currently suffering erosion and extinction and thus, it is crucial to improve conservation strategies to maintain this essential resource. If unchecked, this genetic erosion and species extinction will cause unnecessary and irreversible harm to the economy and social well being of Europe. Much plant biodiversity is undoubtedly found in the existing 9654 European protected areas that cover 1,066,358 km², but clearly targeted and active conservation of priority plant species is required within these protected areas. To help ensure more efficient long-term sustainable conservation, a novel approach to the in situ conservation of European plants, notably crop wild relatives, is suggested. The purpose of this approach is to know what plant genetic resources (PGR) we have, where they are located and to assess whether the current network of protected areas includes a representative sample of European PGR diversity. The generation of in situ conservation and management plans for PGR populations in existing protected areas can significantly improve the present conservation status. Additionally, the identification of gaps of certain PGR in current protected areas can provide the basis for the designation of new complementary PGR in situ reserves.     

Home gardens: an assessment of their biodiversity and potential contribution to conservation of threatened species and crop wild relatives in Benin

Despite growing literature supporting the importance of home gardens (HG) as biodiversity hotspots, knowledge of patterns of their contribution to conservation of threatened species and crop wild relatives (CWR) across climate and culture in Africa is still limited. This investigation was conducted across three climatic zones to assess the floristic diversity of home gardens and the extent to which they contribute to conservation of threatened species and CWR. Overall, 240 home gardens were sampled and their floristic diversity assessed. The ecological importance of recorded species was determined per climatic zone using the importance value index (IVI). A cluster analysis was performed to group the species according to their IVI-values and a principal component analysis helped to identify the most important species. 285 species were inventoried throughout the study area. Home garden species’ diversity globally declined from the drier to the wetter zone but was highest in the transition zone. The average number of species found per HG was 10.1 and varied weakly across zones (9.07, Guineo-Congolean zone; 10.77, Sudano-Guinean zone; and 10.53, Sudanian zone). The most important home gardens species in the Sudanian, the Sudano-Guinean and the Guineo-Congolean zones were respectively: Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench and Hibiscus asper Hook.f.; Solanum lycopersicum L. and Zea mays L.; Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. and Senna occidentalis (L.) Link. They were mainly vegetables and used as food and/or medicinal plant species. Twenty CWR and twelve threatened species were recorded and were also mainly used for food and medicinal purposes. Thorough research on socioeconomic factors supporting possession of HG and choice of managed species as well as indigenous management strategies of HG and dynamic of traditional knowledge related to HG may help to deeply assess home gardens’ effectiveness in biodiversity conservation.     

National inventory and prioritization of crop wild relatives: case study for Benin

Species prioritization is a crucial step in any development of conservation strategy, especially for crop wild relatives (CWR), since financial resources are generally limited. This study aimed at: assessing the biodiversity of crop wild relatives in Benin and identifying priority species for active conservation. Data were collected through literature review to establish an exhaustive list of CWR in Benin. Eight prioritization criteria and different prioritization systems were used. The top 50 species obtained by each of these methods were identified and twenty final top CWR were shortlisted as those occurring as priority across methods. A total of 266 plant species belonging to 65 genera and 36 families were identified. The most represented are: Cyperaceae (12.50 %), Leguminosae-Papilionoideae (11.87 %), Convolvulaceae (11.25 %), Poaceae (10.31 %), Asteraceae (7.81 %), Solanaceae (6.87 %) and Dioscoreaceae (5.31 %). Among the 20 species of highest priority for conservation, Manihot glaziovii Müll. Arg. and Piper guineense Schumach. et Thonn., appeared as the most represented species on top of the list.     

National inventory and prioritization of crop wild relatives in Spain

Crop wild relatives (CWR) have recently received significant attention due to their value as plant genetic resources and their contribution to world food security. We present a prioritized checklist of CWR in Spain in which the criteria of crossability with crops of economic importance, endemicity and threat status have been taken into account. First, we selected a list of genera corresponding to the most relevant crops for Spain and at the international level. These crops were classified into use categories (Food, Forage & Fodder, Ornamental, and Industrial & Other uses) depending on their main use. The wild plant species native to Spain belonging to these genera were then listed. After evaluation by national experts in plant breeding, the resulting checklist contained 929 species. Further selection based on crossability, endemicity and threat status led to the generation of the Prioritized Spanish Checklist of crop wild relatives containing 578 species. Thirty-two percent of these species belong to the Forage & Fodder use category, 28% to the Ornamental category, 24% to the Food category and 16% to the Industrial & Other uses category. Thirty-five percent of the prioritized species are endemic to Spain, and over one-fourth are classified under some category of threat according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Endemicity and threat status rates in the Prioritized Spanish Checklist of CWR were higher than those found in the prioritized CWR inventories of other countries. A ex situ assessment reporting number of accessions showed that 70% of the prioritized Spanish CWR have accessions preserved in genebanks.     

Inventory of related wild species of priority crops in Venezuela

A prerequisite in any conservation programme of Plant Genetic Resources is estimation of diversity. The inventory of wild and naturalized relatives of priority crops in Venezuela (CWR) is based on the main Catalogues of Flora in the country, selecting taxa closely related to crops, according to the concepts of “gene pool” and “taxonomic group”. We included 47 genera, 217 species and 228 taxa belonging to 28 plant families. Among them, those with higher richness are: Fabaceae, Solanaceae, Araceae, Lauraceae, Dioscoreaceae, Poaceae, Rosaceae and Myrtaceae. Genera with a higher number of species are Xanthosoma, Persea, Dioscorea, Prunus, Psidium, Phaseolus, Solanum, Vigna, Capsicum, Manihot, Theobroma, Ipomoea and Oryza. A total of 26 endemic species are found, which belong to genera Xanthosoma, Persea, Dioscorea, Prunus and Manihot. The primary gene pool of crops include native species from genera such as Manihot, Solanum (Section Petota), Lycopersicon, Ananas, Capsicum, Dioscorea, Xanthosoma, Phaseolus, Theobroma, Ipomoea, Gossypium, Arracacia and Psidium. Genera with native species weakly related to crops are Saccharum, Persea, Ipomoea, Prunus, Vigna, Solanum (Section Melongena) and Daucus. Crop genera without native species in Venezuela are Allium, Musa, Brassica, Spinacia, Helianthus, Pisum, Lactuca, Citrus, Elaeis, Beta, Glycine and Triticum. Only a few taxa have already been evaluated according to the IUCN criteria, and Venezuelan accessions of crop wild relatives in national and international genebanks are very scarce.     

To what extent are threatened European plant species conserved in seed banks?

The number of ex situ conservation facilities has grown dramatically in recent years, and they have become increasingly integrated under national and regional conservation initiatives. However, little information is available about the extent to which plant species are appropriately represented in ex situ collections. This paper assesses whether seed/spore collections stored in European seed banks cover or not, and to what extent, the species currently threatened with extinction in the wild. Although a substantial amount of the European flora (ca. 70%) is currently stored in seed banks, we highlight the relatively poor representation of threatened species: only 27% of the taxa listed on the European threatened plant list and 44% of the taxa listed in Annex II of the EU Habitat Directive are stored in European seed banks. Some taxonomical groups most at risk, e.g. Pteridophytes and Orchidaceae, are also under-represented in European seed banks. By examining the number of accessions per species and the number of seeds per accession, this study also gave some insight on how well species are conserved, considering that these two variables are surrogates for genetic diversity. We have highlighted that at least two thirds of the threatened species stored in European seed banks likely suffer from too low genetic diversity in the collections. These analyses were essential to identify those collections and additionally the standards needed to maximize the usefulness of future collections.     

Genetic diversity in wild cereals: regional and local studies and their bearing on conservation ex situ and in situ

The current alarming global crisis and extinction of biodiversity affect negatively the planet's biosphere. Conservation of biodiversity is one attempt to alleviate the pending extinction of the biosphere by humans. Genetic diversity, the basis of evolution by natural selection, is gravely threatened in the progenitors of cultivated plants and its exploration, evaluation, conservation in situ and ex situ is imperative to guarantee sustainable development. This is illustrated by the population genetics and ecology of two important progenitors of cereals wild, wheat and barley. The wild cereals are rich in adaptive genetic diversity in the Fertile Crescent, primarily in Israel, which is their center of origin and diversity. The 40–55% intrapopulation diversity level in the wild cereals contrasts sharply with the average of 80% in outbreeders. Genetic diversity in wild wheat and barley is structured, particularly in wild emmer wheat, as an 'archipelago' ecological and genetic structure. These include central, semi-isolated and ecologically peripheral and marginal isolated populations, where specific alleles and allele combinations predominate as coadapted blocks of genes, adaptive to diverse ecological stresses. These involve both physical (climatic and edaphic) and biotic (pathogens and parasites) stresses at macro- and microgeographical scales. Complementary in situ and ex situ conservation is imperative across the geographic range of these species, to safeguard their immensely important genetic resources for crop improvement.     

Crop wild relatives in Andaman and Nicobar Islands,India

Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India is a geographically insulated biodiversity rich centre in tropical region. The islands are endowed with huge plant diversity comprising of 3219 species of 299 families and 1251 genera. The present study aimed to develop a systematic list of crop wild relatives (CWR) in the islands using information from available literature and also by ground survey. A total of 38 visits were made in all three districts of the islands and observed the crop wild relatives. In total, 153 wild species from 76 genera of 27 families were found to be related to crop plants. The list includes 34 endemic and 4 species of rare occurrence. These species are vital constituent of gene pool which can be explored for rare but novel traits of economic significance. Wild species were found to be abundant in Anacardiaceae, Musaceae, Fabaceae, Zingiberaceae, Myristicaceae, Orchidaceae and Cucurbitaceae. The listed CWRs have potential to create variability and diversify the genebanks. These CWRs grow well in tropical islands in spite of prevalent biotic and abiotic stresses. The information documented will be useful for germplasm exploration, pre-breeding and devising strategies for conservation.     

A measure of genetic diversity of goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) by RAPD analysis

Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) is a medicinal plant valued for the treatment of sore eyes and mouths. Although cultivation of the plant has helped meet growing demand, goldenseal is still considered a threatened or endangered species throughout much of its range in North America. In an effort to assess possible conservation strategies for goldenseal genetic resources, levels of genetic diversity within and among cultivated and wild populations were quantified. RAPD analysis was used to examine six cultivated and 11 wild populations sampled from North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. The average percentage of polymorphic bands in cultivated and wild populations was low (16.8 and 15.5 %, respectively), and geographic range did not predict the level of genetic diversity. Most of the genetic variation (81.2 %) was within populations; only 3.6 % was partitioned between cultivated and wild populations. Our results differed from a previous study which concluded that genetic differences were greater among than within populations. The results of the current study indicate that, although goldenseal grows clonally and in dense patches, a mixed mating system in which both selfing and outcrossing occur is also operating. We therefore suggest that the ex situ conservation of individual plants within populations, chosen carefully to account for clonal propagation in situ, is an appropriate strategy for sustaining the genetic diversity of goldenseal.     

Population baseline data for monitoring genetic diversity loss for 2010: A case study for Brassica species in the UK

The Convention on Biological Diversity and the subsequent International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture have proved a watershed in plant genetic resources (PGR) conservation and consequent initiatives have set various PGR conservation targets to be met by 2010. The aim of our paper is to develop ideas and issues concerning the monitoring of natural genetic resources: particularly in terms of developing a baseline from which to measure levels of genetic diversity. Three species of Brassica (B. nigra, B. oleracea, B. rapa) found wild in the UK were assessed for levels of genetic diversity using AFLP. The relationship between genetic distribution and ecogeographic distribution was considered for each species to determine patterns that may be useful in formulating conservation strategies. Genetic distance between populations of B. nigra and B. rapa were correlated to geographic distance. Levels of genetic polymorphism in B. oleracea were correlated to soil pH while in B. rapa they were correlated to soil coarseness. In terms of PGR conservation these findings may suggest an emphasis toward in situ conservation of a selection of disparate populations would be appropriate where possible as such adaptations may be lost in ex situ collections.     

Conserving seeds of useful wild plants in Mexico: main issues and recommendations

The efficient storage and germination of seeds underpin the effective use of plants for livelihoods and sustainable development. A total of 204 wild species useful for local communities of the Tehuacán–Cuicatlán Valley were collected and stored in seed banks in country for long term conservation, and 66 % (i.e., 134) duplicated in the U.K., as an effective means of ex situ conservation. Of the 204 species, 147 (122 of which also duplicated in the U.K.) were previously listed as useful plants in the ethnofloristic inventory of the Valley. Based on literature surveys, we found that one of the major impediments to the use of stored seeds of wild species is the lack of knowledge of how to germinate the seed. In detailed studies, we found that seeds of 18 useful plant species from 10 different families germinated readily and could be propagated. In contrast, four species (Actinocheita filicina, Bursera submoniliformis, Karwinskia mollis and Lippia graveolens) produced dormant seeds and therefore further studies are needed before their use can be maximised in large scale propagation programmes in support of conservation and livelihoods. Overall, this large-scale study on useful wild plant species in Mexico confirms that conventional seed banking can effectively support sustainable development and livelihood programmes.     

Population genetic structure of in situ wild Sorghum bicolor in its Ethiopian center of origin based on SSR markers

In situ population studies of wild relatives of crops are crucial for the conservation of plant genetic resources, especially in regions with high genetic diversity and a risk of local extinction. Ethiopia is the center of origin for sorghum, yet little is known about the genetic structure of extant wild populations. Using 9 Simple Sequence Repeat loci, we characterized 19 wild populations from five regions, 8 local cultivar populations from three regions, and 10 wild sorghum accessions from several African countries. To our knowledge, this is the most comprehensive study to date of in situ wild sorghum populations in Africa. Genetic diversity corrected for sample size was significantly greater in the wild populations in situ than in local cultivars or the accessions. Approximately 41 % of the genetic variation in the wild plants was partitioned among populations, indicating a high degree of differentiation and potential value for germplasm conservation, and the average number of migrants (N_m) per generation was 0.43. Cluster analyses showed that some wild populations were grouped by geographic region, whereas others were not, presumably due to long-distance seed movement. Four wild populations from disjunct regions formed a unique cluster with an Ethiopian accession of subsp. drummondii and probably represent a weedy race. STRUCTURE and other analyses detected evidence for crop-wild hybridization, consistent with previous molecular marker studies in Kenya, Mali, and Cameroon. In summary, in situ wild sorghum populations in Ethiopia harbor substantial genetic diversity and differentiation, despite their close proximity to conspecific cultivars in this crop/wild/weedy complex.     

Use of the Biological Flora framework in the United Kingdom Overseas Territories: Euphorbia origanoides L.

The United Kingdom Overseas Territories (UKOTs) are globally important for a high diversity of endemic and threatened plant species but are poorly represented in plant ecological literature. This lack of ecological research is compounded by a lack of funding and skills. Cost effective approaches of compiling conservation relevant information are required. Here we present the first examination of a species from the UKOTs presented within the standard framework of a Biological Flora. This framework allows a convenient way to compile ecological information and assess missing data. The account reviews all available information on Euphorbia origanoides L. (Ascension spurge) from Ascension Island (South Atlantic Ocean) relevant to understanding its ecology and conservation, including soil chemistry, climate and plant community data. E. origanoides is an endemic perennial, found in dry, lava plains of Ascension Island with soils comprised of weathered volcanic scoria. E. origanoides has suffered habitat loss through the introduction of invasive species and survival in the wild is currently under threat. We relate the information gathered for this Biological Flora to the conservation of the species in the wild and propose the framework should be used as one way of compiling information relevant for conservation managers. The framework is beneficial as it allows an evidence-based approach to conservation but also permits the prioritisation of research and can help conservation managers to meet targets for the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation.     

Three-dimensional partitioning of diversity informs state-wide strategies for the conservation of saproxylic beetles

Global conventions on biological diversity force governments to develop region-wide conservation strategies. Such strategies are difficult to design for all taxa because little is known about the important spatial scales. Here we applied additive partitioning of the diversity of saproxylic beetles in Bavarian forests in Southern Germany using a nested hierarchical design of five increasingly broader spatial levels: trap, strata, forest stand, forest site, and ecoregion. We consistently found a significantly higher percentage than expected by chance of between ecoregion diversity and significantly lower α diversity within traps. A significant proportion of β diversity was also found between stands. Analysis of species represented by <0.005% of all specimens in our samples and of species classified as threatened revealed similar results. Critical spatial scales for threatened species encompassed the critical levels of common species. Within habitat substratum guilds, the proportion of β diversity increased from species associated with fresh wood to those associated with rotten wood to those associated with fungi. Our results suggest that the most effective way to ensure saproxylic beetle diversity in a state-wide strategy is to add new conservation sites within different ecoregions and to establish new conservation areas in additional forest stands, rather than to enlarge reserves. Our findings further suggest that monitoring of saproxylic beetle diversity on a broader scale in European temperate forests can be restricted to “monitoring species”, i.e. a subgroup of families easy to identify, and that canopy sampling can be neglected without a substantial loss of information.