New Forest Owners: Change and Continuity in the Characteristics of Swedish Non-industrial Private Forest Owners (NIPF Owners) 1990–2010

This paper presents a total survey of the characteristics and changes over time (1990–2010) within the entire population of Swedish non-industrial private forest owners (NIPF owners). By charting the changed demographic, socio-economic and geographic profile of the NIPF owners, it also provides a baseline for a discussion and analysis of potential implications for forest management, policy and values. NIPF owners differ in important ways from the general population of Sweden. However, the gap has narrowed over time with regard to, e.g., educational level and sex composition. The ongoing urbanization process is evident in the growing share of non-residential NIPF owners who live at a distance from their forest property and who differ from their residential (rural) peers through, e.g., higher education, higher income and a higher prevalence of co-ownership of their forest holdings. Although these changes might translate into updated views on forest values among NIPF owners, there could be a delay before this impacts on forest management practices and output.     

To Join Small-Scale Forest Owners’ Associations or Not? Motivations and Opinions of Small-Scale Forest Owners in Three Selected Regions of the Czech Republic

This article analyses motivations and attitudes of small-scale forest owners in the Czech Republic towards joining associations. The research is a follow-up to a field investigation performed within the National Forest Programme II for 2007–2013 in the Vyso?ina region in 2010. The present research was carried out in the Pilsen region in 2012 and the Central Bohemia region in 2015, applying the same method of investigation as in 2010—a questionnaire survey. The findings are based on the results of all three surveys and supported by the analysis of legal and forestry-related documents concerning financial subsidies for forest owners’ associations. The study has revealed reluctance of small-scale owners to join associations. Their lack of motivation is caused by insufficient funding from the government supporting the administration and management of associations. The reluctance also results from the request for associations to be legal entities, which most applicants do not meet as they are either not registered or are registered under unsuitable legal forms. Between 2011 and 2013, no contributions were paid by the government to associations, and no new small-scale forest owners’ associations were formed. To increase associations, we propose that the government should provide sufficient funding not only for the administration and management of associations but also for the process of establishing associations and initial investments. It is also necessary to make major innovations in legislature regarding the transition of ownerships to more convenient legal forms.     

How are Swedish Forest Owners’ Associations Adapting to the Needs of Current and Future Members and Their Organizations?

This paper examines how Swedish forest owners’ associations are adapting their strategies to fit the changing needs of current and future members, and assesses how this development affects the organizations’ profile and relationship with members. To explore this issue eight semi-structured, face-to-face interviews with chairmen and senior managers from three associations and the Federation of Swedish Family Forest Owners were performed. Results showed that associations have identified an increasing need for management-support activities among members due to their decreasing familiarity with the basics of forestry. Help is increasingly needed both for setting up goals and objectives for their forest ownership, and to practically manage their properties. The associations’ education programmes are also being improved and adapted to suit members’ varying understanding of forestry by the introduction of A-, B- and C-level courses. Education campaigns have proved to be a successful tool for affecting members’ management objectives. Further, the associations see an increasing need for political activity to counter calls for stricter management regulations being made by the media, politicians and environmental organizations and thereby protect members’ ownership rights. Initiatives within the organizations for more efficient governance processes and the professionalization of working procedures within the member organizations may, however, come to reduce individual member involvement in the associations. Members may thus increasingly come to act as customers of service in their interaction with the organizations.     

How Can We Incentivize Tropical Forest Restoration?

International policy incentives to promote tropical forest restoration, community forestry, and payments for environmental services have not been widely adopted at scale. It is possible that reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and related activities (REDD+) could be a policy tool for encouraging larger scale restoration efforts in the tropics. Although there are political challenges to ensuring the inclusion of restoration activities in REDD+, its use might facilitate the forest transition in tropical countries, reduce carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, and garner political support for these policies and approaches.     

Private Native Forestry in NSW: Environmentally Benign,Economically Important but Silviculturally Challenged?

With large areas of public native forests now converted into National Parks and unavailable for timber harvest, private native forests (PNF) in New South Wales (NSW) are becoming increasingly important in providing timber for the wood processing industry. At the same time, there is increasing interest in the role that these private forests play in providing and maintaining habitat for wildlife. Historically, timber production from these forests has been opportunistic, with little or no silviculture to maintain wood production potential. Market circumstances and policy settings have not favoured sound silvicultural practice, generating an exploitative and short-term view of the timber resource to maximise short-term returns. This has occurred at a time when these forests are an important and increasing source of log supply to industry. This paper discusses payment of biodiversity credits (incentives) to improve both environmental management and timber production outcomes, and examines the findings of some recent studies on the ‘sustainability’ of PNF. Willingness-to-pay (WTP) and willingness-to-supply studies reveal a disparity between the demand and supply prices for biodiversity and habitat ‘services’ in many cases. Recent ‘sustainability’ studies indicate forestry operations are relatively benign in their impacts on biodiversity, compared to other land uses. However, in the absence of increased financial returns from PNF and in the face of increased public demand for greater environmental outcomes, there seems little alternative to meeting the competing demands of biodiversity and timber production than to implement a system of incentive payments which reward sound private forest management for a multiplicity of objectives.

Do Forest Values Influence Compliance with Forestry Legislation? The Case of Farmers in the Fringes of Forest Reserves in Ghana

Forest values play an important role in forest management practices, and in the design and implementation of forest policy and the legal framework. This paper assesses the importance of farmers’ forest values and the potential associations between farmers’ forest values and their compliance with the tree-felling rule in Ghana. The results are derived from a survey with farmers, inhabiting fringes of forest reserves in the High Forest Zone of Ghana. With the exception of the forest value for future generations, forest values that contribute to immediate subsistence and livelihoods are perceived as the most important (i.e. environmental, subsistence and economic forest values). These values provide, among others, wide variety of foods, such as wild crops and bushmeat, farming land, medicinal plants, household items such as ropes, lianas and mats, firewood and shelter. Aesthetic and religion-related forest values are considered to be the least important. Multivariate binary logistic regression analysis suggests that farmers’ forest values may to some extent influence their compliance with the tree-felling rule. Economic, religion-related and learning forest values are likely to encourage compliance with the tree-felling rule.     

Complexity in modelling forest ecosystems: How much is enough?

The levels-of-integration concept in ecology suggests that while the population and community levels of biological organization provide understanding, they do not provide an adequate basis for predicting future states of populations, communities or ecosystems. Empirical models of populations and communities are implicitly ecosystem level because they are based on measures of the results of all past determinants that affected the populations and communities in question. They can be good predictors under unchanging conditions, but they are not able to predict for changing conditions, which requires the explicit representation of those ecological processes that are anticipated to change. The question addressed in this paper is: how does the performance of a “simple” stand-level model change as representations of these processes are added, and how much complexity is enough? Examples are given of change in performance of the ecosystem management model FORECAST run as a light competition model as nutrient regulation of growth and understory interactions are added singly or in combination. These examples are framed in comparisons of simulations for a white spruce stand in the in boreal mixedwood region in northern British Columbia, for a long-term thinning-fertilization trial in a Douglas-fir stand on southern Vancouver Island, and for yield decline in Chinese fir in south eastern China. It is concluded that the effect of adding complexity on the predictions of this model depends on the time scale of the simulation and the management or natural disturbance regime that is being simulated. The results supported Occam's razor: that models should be as simple as possible but as complex as necessary.     

How fast do European conifers overgrow wounds inflicted by rockfall?

The capacity of trees to recover from mechanical disturbance is of crucial importance for tree survival but has been primarily investigated in saplings using artificially induced wounds. In this study, mature Larix decidua Mill., Picea abies (L.) Karst. and Abies alba Mill. trees growing on alpine slopes that were wounded by naturally occurring rockfall were analyzed to determine their efficiency in overgrowing wounds. In total 43 L. decidua, P. abies and A. alba trees were sampled. First, 106 samples from 27 L. decidua and P. abies trees were analyzed to reconstruct yearly and overall overgrowth rates. Cross sections were taken at the maximum extension of the injury and overgrowth rates were determined on a yearly basis. Results clearly showed that L. decidua overgrew wounds more efficiently than P. abies with an average overgrowth rate of 19° and 11.8° per year, respectively. The higher on the stem the injury was located, the faster the wound was closed. Young and small trees overgrew wounds more efficiently than older or thicker trees. In contrast, no correlation was observed between injury size or increment before/after wounding and wound closure. Second, cross sections from 16 L. decidua, P. abies and A. alba (54 injuries) were used to assess closure rates at different heights around the injury. Overgrowth was generally smallest at the height of the maximum lateral extension of the injury and increased at the upper and lower end of the injury. The efficiency with which L. decidua closes wounds inflicted by rockfall makes this species highly adapted to sites with this type of mechanical disturbance.     

How much variation in tree mortality is predicted by soil and topography in Central Amazonia?

Tree mortality in Amazonia has been related to regional variation in soil, topography and climatic disturbances, but the magnitude of the effect of these factors on tree mortality at local and mesoscales remains poorly determined. We investigated tree mortality in 72 1-ha permanent plots spanning 64 km² of tropical moist forest in Reserva Ducke, Manaus, Brazil. Plots were censused three times (2000-2003, 2003-2005, and 2005-2008), resulting in two census intervals. The relationships of soil and topography to tree mortality were dependent on tree size. Small- and medium-sized trees (1 ? dbh < 30 cm) had similar relationships of mortality with soil and topography, while large trees (dbh ? 30 cm) showed different (or no) relationships. The effects of soil and topography on tree mortality also varied temporally. In the second census interval after storms, soil and topography explained about one-fourth of the spatial variation in mortality of small- and medium-sized trees (<30 cm dbh), whereas no effects were detected in the first census interval. In particular, soil fertility was the most important predictor of tree mortality in the study area. Topography alone (altitude and slope) was associated with only 12% of the spatial variation in tree mortality and the magnitude of the effect of soil and topography on tree mortality also increased after storms. In general, plots on more fertile soils, on steep slopes and sandy soils in valleys showed greater tree mortality than those on plateau with well-drained clayey soils. Therefore, disturbance history and tree size should be included when scaling up tree mortality from local to regional scales. As much variation remains unexplained, other landscape features, such as watershed morphology and wind exposure, may be necessary to make more precise predictions on patterns of tree mortality in Central Amazonia.     

How do trees affect spatio-temporal heterogeneity of nutrient cycling in mediterranean annual grasslands?

? In this study we analyzed heterogeneity in nutrient cycling induced by trees in Mediterranean annual grasslands, comparing years of higher and lower than average precipitation and analyzing the effects of two different solar radiation scenarios.

? Organic matter and consequently upper soil N, K, Ca and Mg were significantly greater in those locations receiving the highest levels of solar radiation, and as expected from many other studies in the literature, there was an increase in all macronutrients (except P) as well as pH below the canopy.

? Contrary to what was expected, plant nutrient concentrations did not directly reflect those found in the soil, with the exception of K. The studied grassland responded to increased nutrient availability by enhancing growth and changing botanical composition rather than by increasing plant nutrient concentrations. Hence, the total amount of accumulated nutrients in the ecosystem was larger below the tree than outside it, although this is mainly a consequence of plant growth enhancement. The levels of Ca, Mg, and Na in plants decreased during the driest year, and the N content was mostly determined by the composition of the grass.

? Temporal nutrient variability, particularly within-years, explained most of the variability in plant nutrient concentration, while spatial variability induced by trees was determined to be of secondary importance. These results are significant for ecosystem nutrient modelling.

     

How to Organize a Large-Scale Ecological Restoration Program? The Framework Developed by the Atlantic Forest Restoration Pact in Brazil

Large-scale ecological restoration programs across the world have begun to extensively transform degraded lands into young native ecosystems. However, more projects like these will be necessary in the coming years to fulfill the goal of restoring 150 million ha established by United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. Here, we present and discuss the steps required for and the lessons learned from the organization of a large-scale ecological restoration program in Brazil, the Atlantic Forest Restoration Pact. These lessons are organized around 9 steps: (a) the presentation of the motivations driving the promotion of large-scale restoration, (b) the organization of the main stakeholders, (c) the definition of goals, (d) the organization of a database, (e) the indication of both available and priority areas for restoration, (f) the proposal of science-based and field-validated methods, (g) the establishment of a monitoring protocol, (h) the proposal of a communication program to unite members and interact with society, and (i) the strategies for promoting the establishment of public policies conducive to restoration. This framework may provide a template to help other initiatives to mainstream isolated restoration projects into a large and well-organized movement, which may increase the chances of successful restoration in the future.     

How do light and water influence Pinus pinaster Ait. germination and early seedling development?

Germination and survival in the initial months represent a critical period for forest species. Many factors have significant influences and can produce a negative effect on regeneration. To prevent this, these factors must be known and their influence must be evaluated. The influence of light and of water availability has been studied in the most important pine species in the Iberian Peninsula, the Pinus pinaster. An experimental seed-sowing was conducted in the Cuéllar experimental site (central Spain), where four different harvest intensities were applied in 2004. Four different watering regimes were performed during two consecutives summers (2006 and 2007) and seedling development was monitored during 18 months. Main findings reveal that, regarding germination and survival in the initial months, light was more important than water availability. Higher germination and survival rates were obtained when the lowest level harvest was applied. However, in terms of biomass and growth, water availability was more influential than harvest intensity. Results improved when there was greater water availability after a few months. The main conclusion of this study is that light shows a higher impact that summer rainfall with respect to germination and survival in the early stages of Mediterranean Maritime Pine.     

Hydrology-oriented (adaptive) silviculture in a semiarid pine plantation: How much can be modified the water cycle through forest management?

Hydrology-oriented silviculture might adapt Mediterranean forests to climatic changes, although its implementation demands a better understanding and quantification on the water fluxes. The influence of thinning intensity (high, medium, low and a control) and its effect on the mid-term (thinned plots in 1998 and 2008) on the water cycle (transpiration, soil water and interception) and growth [basal area increment (BAI)] were investigated in 55-year-old Aleppo pine trees. Thinning enhanced a lower dependence of growth on climate fluctuations. The high-intensity treatment showed significant increases in the mean annual BAI (from 4.1 to 17.3 cm²) that was maintained in the mid-term. Thinning intensity progressively increased the sap flow velocity (v _s) in all cases with respect to the control. In the mid-term, an increased functionality of the inner sapwood was also observed. Mean daily tree water use ranged from 5 (control) to 18 (high intensity) l tree^?1. However, when expressed on an area basis, daily transpiration ranged from 0.18 (medium) to 0.30 mm (control), meaning that in spite of the higher transpiration rates in the remaining trees, stand transpiration was reduced with thinning. Deep infiltration of water was also enhanced with thinning (about 30 % of rainfall) and did not compete with transpiration, as both presented opposite seasonal patterns. The changes in the stand water relationships after 10 years were well explained by the forest cover metric. The blue to green water ratio changed from 0.15 in the control to 0.72 in the high-intensity treatment, with the remaining treatments in the 0.34–0.48 range.