Moisture-related adjustment factor to obtain a reference ultrasonic velocity in structural lumber of plantation hardwood

Wave propagation techniques based on ultrasound for timber grading are influenced by the moisture content (MC) of wood. The ultrasound velocities at an equilibrium MC (V₁₂) and above saturation point (V_sat) were used to calculate moisture-related adjustment factors (k_H). Tests were conducted using plantation hardwoods (Corymbia citriodora, Eucalyptus grandis and Eucalyptus pellita) grown in Brazil. Below the fiber saturation point (FSP), k_H values were between 0.66% and 0.83%, which concurred with intervals proposed in existing literature for softwoods. However, the k_H inferred from the velocities obtained at MCs above the FSP increased (from 10% to 30%) with increasing density. The sound velocity under saturated conditions (V_sat) obtained by adjustment equations was 2–9% lower than the actual V_sat obtained from the tests. The obtained adjustment factors may be useful for the standardization of nondestructive timber grading based on ultrasound propagation.     

Characterization of viscoelastic,shrinkage and transverse anatomy properties of four Australian hardwood species

Abstract

Several key wood properties of four Australian hardwood species: Corymbia citriodora, Eucalyptus pilularis, Eucalyptus marginata and Eucalyptus obliqua, were characterized using state-of-the-art equipment at AgroParisTech, ENGREF, France. The wood properties were measured for input into microscopic (cellular level) and macroscopic (board level) vacuum-drying models currently under development. Morphological characterization was completed using a combination of environmental scanning electron microscopy and image analysis software. A clear difference in fibre porosity, size, wall thickness and orientation was evident between species. Viscoelastic properties were measured in the tangential and radial directions using dynamic mechanical analysis instrumentation. The glass transition temperature was markedly different for each species owing to anatomical and chemical variations. The radial direction showed higher stiffness, internal friction and glass transition temperature than the tangential direction. A highly sensitive microbalance and laser technology were used to measure loss of moisture content in conjunction with directional shrinkage on microsamples. Collapse shrinkage was clearly evident with this method for E. obliqua, but not with other species, consistent with industrial seasoning experience. To characterize the wood–water relations of E. obliqua, free of collapse, thinner sample sections (in the radial–tangential plane) are recommended.     

Analysis of the pore-size distribution and fiber saturation point of native and thermally modified wood using differential scanning calorimetry

The aim of this paper was to investigate pore-size distributions in the nano-diameter range of wood and their alteration due to thermal modification of wood using thermoporosimetry, and to find out what consequences can be derived regarding the biological durability. Thermoporosimetry is a technique that is based on the measurement using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The method is based on the fact that frozen water contained within small pores is at elevated pressure and therefore has a depressed melting temperature as a function of the appropriate pore diameter. In addition, the fiber saturation points (FSP) were determined by DSC. The former were performed in an isothermal-step method and the latter using the continuous heating-up method. Native and thermally modified twin samples of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), Sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) and European ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) were analyzed. The results clearly show that the pore shares of wood for the measurable diameter range between 4 and 400 nm decrease considerably in all studied wood species due to thermal modification of the wood. Furthermore, thermal modification of wood leads to a decreased FSP for all studied wood species. For evaluation as well as reproducibility of the results of pore-size distribution and FSP, the consideration of sensible heat and specific heat of fusion plays an important role. If this is not done, it can lead to misinterpretations.     

Effects of extraneous substances,wood density and interlocked grain on fiber saturation point of hardwoods

Abstract

Samples of nine tropical hardwoods from Peru and sugar maple wood from Quebec were selected for moisture sorption and swelling tests at 25°C. These tests evaluated the fiber saturation point (FSP) by two methods: following adsorption over distilled water, and from the volumetric swelling intersection point. Cold-water and hot-water extractives, sequential cyclohexane, acetone and methanol extracts, ash content, wood density and interlocked grain were also determined on matched samples. The results indicated that adsorption tests over distilled water were not applicable for determining FSP in all wood species. Condensation of water vapor apparently occurred, even though temperature during adsorption was controlled to the nearest 0.01°C. The volumetric swelling intersection point method was judged more appropriate. FSP ranged from 15 to 25% for tropical hardwoods and was 30% for sugar maple wood. FSP was negatively correlated with wood density, acetone extracted fraction, interlocked grain and ash content. These parameters each exerted similar effects on variability in FSP.     

Water Use of Tree Lines: Importance of Leaf Area and Micrometeorology in Sub-Humid Kenya

In this research the relative importance of leaf area and microclimatic factors in determining water use of tree lines was examined in sub-humid Western Kenya. Measurements of tree water-use by a heat-balance technique, leaf area, bulk air saturation deficit, daily radiation, and soil water content were done in an experiment with tree lines within crop fields. The tree species were Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex Maiden, Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. and Cedrella serrata Royle, grown to produce poles on a phosphorus-fixing Oxisol/Ferralsol with (+P) or without (−P) phosphorus application. Doubling the leaf area of Cedrella and Grevillea doubled water use in a leaf area (LA) range of 1–11 m² per tree. The response of Eucalyptus water use (W) to increases in leaf area was slightly less marked, with W = LAⁿ, n<1. Transpiration rate per unit leaf area (Tr) was the other important determinant of water use, being affected by both tree species and phosphorus fertilization. A doubling of the saturation deficit (SD) halved the water use of all trees except for Cedrella +P, in which water use increased. A direct effect of soil water content on water use was only found in Grevillea -P, with a small increase (60%) as available water increased from 1.4 to 8.9% above wilting point (32%). This low direct response to soil water content is probably due to the extensive tree-root systems and the deep clayey soils supplying sufficient water to meet the evaporative demand. Indirect responses to soil water content via decreases in leaf area occurred in the dry season. The results showed that water use of tree lines was more determined by leaf area and transpiration rate per unit leaf area than by micro meteorological factors. The linear response of tree water use to leaf area, over a wide range leaf areas, is a specific characteristic of tree line configurations and distinguished them from forest stands. In tree lines light interception and canopy conductance increase with leaf area much more than a similar leaf area increase would have caused in a closed forest canopy.     

Effect of NaCl and high pH on seedling growth of 15 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. provenances

Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. is a moderately salt-tolerant Australian tree species widely used in farm forestry, often in salt-affected landscapes. In a glasshouse experiment, E. camaldulensis seedlings from 15 wide-ranging Australian seed sources (provenances), were cultured in sand-filled pots and treated for 57 days with control (no added NaCl in tap water, neutral pH), saline (150 mol m^–3 NaCl, stepped high pH (pH 7.6 to 9.5) and combined NaCl and high pH solutions. Significant differences were found among provenances in height and shoot dry weight. Differences in provenance response to treatment were found for dry weight but not for height. Reductions in shoot dry weight due to NaCl and high pH ranged from 42.9% to 82.0% and 4.3% to 51.7% respectively. Provenances from Lake Hindmarsh-SE (Victoria) and Lake Albacutya-N (Victoria) had relatively high tolerance to both stresses whereas those from Lake Albacutya-S (Victoria), Lowan Valley (Victoria), Silverton (New South Wales) and Katherine (Northern Territory) had low tolerance to both stresses. Provenances from De Grey River and Fitzroy River (Western Australia) were most tolerant of high pH. The performance of these provenances in this experiment generally accorded well with that in saline field environments.     

Changes in physical properties of tropical and temperate hardwoods below and above the fiber saturation point

Changes in physical and mechanical properties of wood were analyzed using sorption tests combined with dimensional measurements and perpendicular-to-the-grain tangential compression tests. In order to determine the influence of wood structure on these changes, three hardwood species (Fagus grandifolia, Brosimum alicastrum and Cariniana domestica) presenting different anatomical structures were studied. Two experimental techniques were used to perform moisture sorption tests at 25°C. The first technique used saturated salt solutions (from 33 to 90% relative humidity) and the second used the pressure membrane method (above 96% relative humidity). Special attention was given to the “fiber saturation region”, where changes in wood properties started to take place. Results showed that at equilibrium moisture content (EMC), radial, tangential and volumetric shrinkage, as well as changes in transverse strength occurred above the fiber saturation point (FSP). This behavior can be explained by the effect of hysteresis at saturation on wood properties. This hysteresis indicates that loss of bound water takes place in the presence of liquid or capillary water, which contradicts the concept of FSP. The initial EMC at which bound water starts to be removed varied largely among the wood species.     

Effects of extraneous substances, wood density and interlocked grain on fiber saturation point of hardwoods

Samples of nine tropical hardwoods from Peru and sugar maple wood from Quebec were selected for moisture sorption and swelling tests at 25°C. These tests evaluated the fiber saturation point (FSP) by two methods: following adsorption over distilled water, and from the volumetric swelling intersection point. Cold-water and hot-water extractives, sequential cyclohexane, acetone and methanol extracts, ash content, wood density and interlocked grain were also determined on matched samples. The results indicated that adsorption tests over distilled water were not applicable for determining FSP in all wood species. Condensation of water vapor apparently occurred, even though temperature during adsorption was controlled to the nearest 0.01°C. The volumetric swelling intersection point method was judged more appropriate. FSP ranged from 15 to 25% for tropical hardwoods and was 30% for sugar maple wood. FSP was negatively correlated with wood density, acetone extracted fraction, interlocked grain and ash content. These parameters each exerted similar effects on variability in FSP.     

Antioxidant compounds from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptus grandis</Emphasis> biomass by subcritical liquid water extraction

The effectiveness of subcritical liquid water processing for extraction of antioxidants from the leaves of Eucalyptus grandis biomass was evaluated by determining the capability of the processed samples to scavenge peroxynitrite radicals in vitro, as compared with the extracts obtained by conventional extraction. Pyrogallol (1), 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde (2), and 4,4,6,6-tetramethyl-3,5-dioxo-cyclohex-1-enecarboxylic acid (3) were identified as the major products obtained from the subcritical liquid water extracts. Among these, pyrogallol (1) exhibited stronger antioxidant activity than butylated hydroxytoluene, which was used as a standard for the antioxidant activity measurement. This research was presented at the conference of the Japan Society for Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Agrochemistry (JSBBA) in Tokyo, March 2007.     

Collapse and internal checking in the latewood of Eucalyptus regnans F.Muell

Summary Tangential shrinkage was measured on longitudinal-tangential slices of separate earlywood and latewood from one board of Eucalyptus regnans F.Muell. at various temperatures. Large amounts of collapse shrinkage were measured in the latewood slices, and lesser amounts in the earlywood slices. Collapse shrinkage in the earlywood was found only when the slices were dried at temperatures above a minimum temperature (the collapse threshold temperature). End-coated board sections approximately 200 mm long were rapidly dried at dry-bulb temperatures below the collapse threshold temperature for earlywood. Incipient internal checks were found in the latewood of these boards. Board sections dried at higher temperatures showed internal checks starting in both early and latewood. A non-linear drying simulation model was modified to take the heterogeneous nature of wood into account. This model predicted that internal checks would form in this wood even if it were dried sufficiently slowly to avoid surface checking.Symbols D Diffusion coefficient - e_c Creep strain - e_i Instantaneous strain - e_m Mechano-sorptive strain - e_n Net strain - e_u Unconfined shrinkage strain - EW Earlywood - FSP Fibre saturation point - LW Latewood - L-T Longitudinal-tangential slice - MC Moisture content (kg water/kg dry wood) - q Moisture concentration - R-T Radial-tangential slice - t Time - y Depth in board The author is pleased to acknowledge the assistance of Emeritus Professor A. R. Oliver, Associate Professor P. E. Doe, University of Tasmania, and the Australian Furniture Research and Development Institute     

Effect of pre-steaming on drying rate,wood anatomy and shrinkage of regrowth Eucalyptus pilularis Sm.

Summary The influence of pre-steaming on the drying rate, wood anatomy and shrinkage of regrowth Eucalyptus pilularis (blackbutt) was determined. Pre-steaming increased the drying rate by 7–16%. This resulted from a mobilisation and partial removal of heartwood extractives, probably allowing greater access of water molecules to cell walls, and therefore increased radial and tangential diffusion. Longitudinal permeability is unlikely to be significantly increased by pre-steaming, as tyloses appeared unaltered. Volumetric shrinkage was unchanged.The authors wish to thank K. W. Groves of the Department of Forestry, Australian National University for his comments, J. F. Marchant and R. Colley for technical assistance, and P. Lind for some of the statistical analyses. The New South Wales Timber Advisory Council Ltd provided financial support. The work reported in this paper formed part of a post-graduate research programme undertaken by the senior author at the Department of Forestry, Australian National University     

End-grain butt joints obtained by friction welding of high density eucalyptus wood

End-grain-to-end-grain welding gave butt joints of good strength with three high density Australian eucalyptus woods, namely Sidney blue gum (Eucalyptus saligna), Spotted gum (Eucalyptus maculata, Corymbia maculata spp.) and Black butt (Eucalyptus pilularis). The absence or limited tendency to defibration in end-grain-to-end-grain welding for wood densities as high as these, around 800–900 kg/m³, indicates that end-grain-to-end-grain welding is possible and yields good joint strengths, but with different appearance of the welded interphase. At anatomical level, three features were noticeable: (1) the paintbrush-like appearance of the cell tips bent so by the frictional movement during welding. This leaves this cell tips free to intertwine with the same one from the surface of the opposite wood piece. (2) The absence of any great amount of molten material between the straight shafts of the parallel bundles of cells, showing that the greater part of the intercellular material has molten and has flowed away from the cells towards the interphase. (3) The amount of molten intercellular material found on the upper surface of the cell tips, giving the joint the appearance of an anatomical fingerjoint.     

Moisture extraction and crop yield as a function of distance from a row of Eucalyptus tereticornis

A study was made on the effect of an east-west tree line of years old Eucalyptus tereticornis on soil physical parameters and adjoining mustard and wheat crops as a function of distance from the tree-crop interface in north- and south-facing sides. Maximum soil temperature, pan evaporation, moisture extraction, number of plants/m², and yields of mustard and wheat did not differ significantly on the two sides of plantation. Plant growth parameters decreased linearly with distance from the plantation. Mustard yield, Y (kg/ha) was linearly related to moisture extraction, ME (mm) as Y = 1914–120.3 ME. Eucalyptus tereticornis was found to extract 5 times more water than mustard from 0–150cm soil profile. Mustard and wheat yield reductions in adjoining 10 meter strips on both sides of the plantation were 47 and 34 per cent, respectively. Eucalyptus tereticornis is, therefore, not a suitable species for row plantations in agro-forestry systems in deep water table conditions of semi-arid regions.     

The vertical distribution of fine roots of five tree species and maize in Morogoro,Tanzania

In order to assess the possibility of root competition in agroforestry, the vertical distribution of fine roots (< 2 mm in diameter) of five tree species in pure two-year-old stands was compared to that of mature maize.Cassia siamea, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Leucaena leucocephala andProsopis chilensis had a rooting pattern similar to that of maize, i.e. a slow decline in fine root mass from 0–100 cm soil depth.Eucalyptus camaldulensis had its roots evenly distributed down to 100 cm. On an average, the fine root biomass of the tree species was roughly twice as that of the maize. We conclude that the studied tree species are likely to compete with maize and other crops with a similar rooting pattern for nutrients and water.     

Water relations of Eucalyptus nitens × Eucalyptus grandis: is there interclonal variation in response to experimentally imposed water stress?

This study tested the hypothesis that water stress increases the hydraulic efficiency of Eucalyptus nitens × E. grandis saplings as a result of osmotic and elastic adjustments. Eucalyptus nitens × E. grandis clones (NH00, NH58, NH69 and NH70) were potted in coarse river sand supplemented with a slow-release fertiliser, drip-irrigated four times daily and exposed to full sunlight for eight months. Thereafter, irrigation was withheld twice for seven consecutive days from half of the saplings of each clone, with a seven-day recovery period (regular irrigation) in-between. Relative soil moisture content did not correlate with stomatal conductance (g_s) at pre-dawn and at midday. Leaves of plants subjected to the water-stress treatment wilted in 7 d, and the reduction in g_s was significant at midday with no significant differences between clones. Stomatal conductance and all traits derived from pressure-volume graphs (e.g. osmotic potential at full turgor) were constant in the control treatment. There were no clear patterns in osmotic and elastic adjustments in both treatments. Root hydraulic conductance was constant between treatments and clones. However, water stress reduced shoot hydraulic conductance and stem hydraulic conductivity with significant interclonal effects. Plant biomass, leaf area and leaf weight ratio were significantly lower in the water-stressed plants, but there were no differences between the clones. In conclusion, the water-stress treatment did not introduce significant differences in stomatal conductance and tissue-water relations of Eucalyptus nitens × E. grandis clones. Interclonal variation in water-stress response was found in shoot hydraulic traits, and clone NH58 may be more suitable for planting across sites prone to moderate water stress.     

ASPECTS OF CONIFEROUS AFFORESTATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

Cytospora eucalypticola sp. nov., a fungus associated with a disease of Eucalyptus saligna, is described. Its relationship to other species of Cytospora on Eucalyptus is discussed.     

纤维饱和点概念的演变、测试方法及其应用

纤维饱和点(FSP)是木材科学中早期提出的概念,距今已超过1个世纪,在木材-水分关系、物理力学性能等木材科学研究各领域均发挥了重要作用。相较于FSP概念的最初形式,其无论从定义形式还是从物理含义等方面都有了变化,从最初以木材内水分状态及其存在位置的定性描述朝着水分与木材结合形式差异、木材内水分势能边界方向发展。目前国内关于FSP的研究相对滞后,也未见系统的FSP测试原理和方法介绍。本研究对FSP概念演变与发展、测试方法及其优缺点进行系统分析,并在此基础上总结FSP在木材-水分关系、木材干燥技术、改性效果评价中的应用及其进一步发展方向。根据木材-水分关系研究的不同阶段,FSP概念可归纳为4种类型:第1类概念强调以物理力学性质转折点及水分存在位置定义FSP;第2类概念以木材细胞壁容纳水分极限作为FSP,简化了限制条件;第3类概念强调水分与木材结合形式差异,从吸、放热的热物理角度等进行阐述;第4类概念引入溶液热力学概念,将FSP视为木材内不同状态水分的相态边界,给出了FSP明确的物理含义。FSP测试方法可归纳为7类,包括外推法、溶剂排出法、压力板法、示差量热法、离心脱水法、核磁共振法和溶液热力学计算法,除外推法、溶液热力学计算法获得的FSP为计算值外,其他方法都可获得细胞壁内吸着水真实含量,测定的FSP明显高于传统引用的FSP平均值30%,但具体应用时应根据实际需求而定。FSP可进一步在木材干缩湿胀特性分析、木材干燥基准制定等方面发挥作用,同时在木材改性效果评价及改性处理后微观构造分析等领域均可应用。在FSP热力学概念基础上衍生的全含水率区间木材-水分关系的化学势表达方式,以及在此基础上发展而来的木材-水分相态图,将成为今后建立木材-水分关系的科学评价体系机制,并进一步服务于科研与生产。     

澳大利亚桉树培育经验对我国桉树可持续经营的启示

阐述桉树在我国的引种状况、生长适应性、经营现状及存在的问题,通过考察澳大利亚桉树培育分析桉树原分布区速生丰产培育模式、生物多样性以及对环境的影响,探讨澳大利亚桉树经营对我国桉树可持续栽植的启示,提出我国发展桉树的建议。     

Methods of inoculation and evaluation of Erwinia psidii in eucalypt

The dieback and wilting caused by Erwinia psidii are emerging eucalypt diseases that have been observed since 2014 in the south and central‐south regions of Brazil. Field observations have shown variability in disease severity resistance among Eucalyptus spp. clones and species. It is hypothesized that this variability is due to genetic resistance. To confirm this hypothesis, inoculations in genetically distinct eucalypt plants are necessary. However, lack of an inoculation method and disease assessment makes difficult to select resistant genotypes for use in commercial plantations or genetic breeding programmes. Three inoculation methods were tested on eight clones of Eucalyptus spp. Among them, inoculum deposition with bacteria‐impregnated toothpick on the axillary buds was the simplest and most effective, capable to reproduce the disease symptoms observed under conditions of natural infection. We also developed a rating scale for disease assessment. Among eight clones tested, only Clone 1 (Eucalyptus saligna) and Clone 2 (Eucalyptus urophylla) were resistant.     

Liquid penetration in different cells of two hardwood species

Two experimental techniques were used to test the water permeability of two Korean hardwood species: diffuse porous Populus tomentiglandulosa T. Lee (eunsasi poplar) and ring porous white oak, Quercus serrata Thunb (konara oak). The first technique measured the void volume filled at different moisture content (MC) levels. Samples were treated with water via a schedule of full-cell impregnation. A significant relation between MC and permeability (the fractional void volume) was found. A reduction in liquid permeability was observed at MC above the fiber saturation point (FSP), whereas the opposite result was observed at MC below FSP due to the effect of the voids available in the wood. However, the differences of increased permeability from MC level 20% to 0% were found satistically the same in either wood species. The second technique measured the speed of liquid penetration in vessels, fibers, and rays with no application of external pressure. In this method, liquid flow was captured via video and the penetration speed was measured. Vessels, fibers, and rays in poplar were found to be more permeable than those in oak. Different anatomical factors such as cell diameter, cell length, pit number, pit aperture area, and thickness of the pit membrane seemed to be responsible for the variation of liquid flow rate in different cells of the two hardwood species.