Tolerance of competitive spring barley cultivars to weed harrowing

Two experiments were conducted in 14 spring barley cultivars to investigate if crop tolerance to post‐emergence weed harrowing is related to morphological traits that reflect competitiveness. The experiments were carried out in organically grown fields where low weed densities and biomass production were assumed to be without significant influence on crop growth. The experiments showed that different cultivars responded differently to post‐emergence weed harrowing in terms of yield reduction. Taller and higher yielding cultivars with high leaf area index (LAI) tended to be less tolerant to post‐emergence weed harrowing than shorter and lower yielding cultivars with low LAI. This conclusion, however, is only valid for 13 of 14 cultivars because one very tall cultivar was tolerant to harrowing. Although the tallest and highest yielding cultivars were damaged the most, they remained the highest yielding cultivars after weed harrowing. This study is the first attempt to relate competitiveness of cereal cultivars to tolerance to harrowing, and it is thought provoking that competitiveness and tolerance is found to be counterproductive.     

A weed suppressive index for spring barley (Hordeum vulgare) varieties

A screening programme for crop variety competitiveness would ideally be based on only a few, non-destructive measurements of key growth traits. In this study we measured the weed suppressive ability of 79 varieties of spring barley in two ways: (i) directly, by weed coverage assessments under weedy conditions at three Danish locations in 2002–2004 and (ii) indirectly, by non-destructive measurements of varietal growth traits under weed-free conditions in 17 other experiments in Denmark in 2001–2003. Based on just four varietal growth traits (reflectance, leaf area index, leaf angle and culm length), we successfully developed a method for indexing the weed suppressive ability of spring barley varieties. The suppressive index ranged from 12% in Lux and 55% in Modena in proportion to the 90% quantile coverage of all varieties. The index was validated against independent data from two locations in 2005 with 14 and 24 varieties and was found valuable for future use in regular screening programmes.     

Growth response of six weed species and spring barley (Hordeum vulgare) to increasing levels of nitrogen and phosphorus

A glasshouse experiment was carried out to investigate the influence of increasing levels of nitrogen and phosphorus on the growth of six common weed species growing alone or in competition with spring barley (Hordeum vulgare). Capsella bursa‐pastoris, Chenopodium album, Papaver rhoeas, Sinapis arvensis, Spergula arvensis, Viola arvensis and spring barley were grown in pots with different levels of nitrogen (0, 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150 kg N ha^?1) or phosphorus (0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 60 kg P ha^?1). The aboveground parts of the plants were harvested after 7 weeks and the dry weight of shoots, percentage N and P content of the shoot and uptake of N and P were determined. A linear or a polynomial model was used to describe the data. Growing alone, Spergula arvensis was the only weed species that increased its dry weight at the same rate as barley. Weed species with low dry weight increase had larger increases in percentage N or P content than barley, indicating a luxury accumulation of nutrients. The uptake of N and P per pot did not differ much between weeds and barley. V. arvensis and P. rhoeas accumulated least nutrients (per cent of dry matter) and Spergula arvensis accumulated most. Weeds grew poorly in competition with barley. The percentage N and P content in barley did not change when they grew in competition with weeds.     

Effects of weed harrowing and undersown clover on weed growth and spring cereal yield

Weed competition and nutrient scarcity often restrict organic cereal production, especially where the availability of livestock manure is limited. While harrowing of annual weeds and legume cover crops can be used, these methods are both executed in early spring and may hinder each other. Two cycles of a 2‐year crop rotation were carried out in south‐east Norway (60°42′N, 10°51′E, altitude 250 m) with weed harrowing and undersown cover crops (WHCC) at two fertiliser rates (40 and 100 kg nitrogen ha^?1). The effect of the WHCC treatments was measured by weed density and species, weed biomass, changes in weed seedbank and grain yield. The weed density depended on the interaction between WHCC, fertiliser and year. On average, pre‐emergence weed harrowing reduced weed density by 32% and weed biomass by 49%, while pre‐ and post‐emergence weed harrowing reduced weed density by 59% and weed biomass by 67% compared with the untreated control. Spergula arvensis became more abundant at low rather than at high fertiliser rates. On average, white clover cover crop sown after pre‐emergence weed harrowing resulted in the highest yields for both oat (+12.1%) and wheat (+16.4%) compared with the untreated control. Despite differences in weed population density and biomass among WHCC treatments within years, the weed biomass, weed density and seedbank increased for all WHCC treatments over the 4‐year period. More research is required into improving the efficacy of mechanical and cultural weed suppression methods that organic systems rely on.     

Selectivity of weed harrowing in lupin

Three field experiments were conducted in lupin in 1997, 1998 and 1999 to study two aspects of selectivity of post‐emergence weed harrowing; the ability of the crop to resist soil covering (the initial damage effect), and the ability of the crop to tolerate soil covering (the recovery effect). Each year soil covering curves and crop tolerance curves were established in three early growth stages of lupin. Soil covering curves connected weed control and crop soil cover in weedy plots, and crop tolerance curves connected crop yield and crop soil cover in weed‐free plots. The experiments showed that both resistance and tolerance were unaffected by the growth stage of lupin within the range from the cotyledon to the 7–8 leaf growth stages. Tolerance to soil covering was also unaffected by year whereas the ability of the crop to resist soil covering was highly affected by year. Lupin showed high tolerance to soil covering but a rather low ability to resist soil covering. Harrowing at multiple growth stages supported the finding that lupin is fairly tolerant to soil covering. Advantages and disadvantages of using soil covering as a measure of crop damage is discussed. In conclusion, weed harrowing in lupin showed positive prospects because of high tolerance to crop soil cover.     

Investigating the selectivity of weed harrowing with new methods

In six field experiments on post‐emergence weed harrowing in spring barley, the effects of row spacing, timing, direction and orientation on crop/weed selectivity were investigated. The efficacies of increasing intensities of harrowing generated either by increasing number of passes or increasing driving speed were also tested. Selectivity was defined as the relationship between crop burial in soil immediately after treatment and weed control. To estimate crop burial, digital image analysis was used in order to make objective estimations. The study showed that narrow row spacing decreased selectivity in a late crop growth stage, whereas row spacing in the range 5.3–24 cm had no effects at an early growth stage. Harrowing across rows decreased selectivity in one out of two experiments. Whether repeated passes with the harrow were carried out in the same orientation along the rows or in alternative orientations forth and back was unimportant. There were indications that a high harrowing intensity produced by a single pass at high speed gave a lower selectivity than a similar intensity produced by several passes at a low speed. Impacts on selectivity, however, were small and only significant at high degrees of weed control. Timing had no significant impact on selectivity.     

The impact of uprooting and soil-covering on the effectiveness of weed harrowing

The impact of uprooting and covering plants on mortality and growth reduction was investigated in the laboratory using Lolium perenne L. and Lepidium sativum L. (harrowed 3–4 days after emergence) and Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (harrowed at emergence) as model weed species. Although the predominant initial effect of harrowing was to cover the plants, only 1–17% of the non-uprooted covered plants were killed because the depth at which they were buried by the harrow was shallow. Uprooting was more effective (47–61% mortality) but strongly dependent on soil moisture content. It accounted for 93 and 95% of L. sativum and C. quinoa mortality, but for only 60% of L. perenne mortality. In L. perenne , the species most sensitive to burying, a strong positive relationship was observed between the percentage of plants covered by harrowing and the fresh weight reduction of the total population 6 days after harrowing. The fresh weight reduction of the total L. sativum population was best related to the percentage of uprooted plants, but the percentage of covered plants also appeared to be a good predictor because of its correlation with uprooting. Most of the uprooted plants were also buried. The fresh weight reduction of the total C. quinoa population was not related to the covering effect of harrowing and only weakly related to the percentage of uprooted plants. The results indicate that the plant recovery process after harrowing needs further study and that field research methods should be refined so that they can better discern initial and final harrowing effects on weeds.     

Effects of pre- and post-emergence weed harrowing on annual weeds in peas and spring cereals

To assess the effects of timing and frequency of weed harrowing on weed abundance and crop yield, different pre- and post-emergence weed harrowing sequences were applied to spring cereals and peas in field experiments performed during 2003 and 2004 in Sweden. Post-emergence harrowing was performed at crop growth stages 2–3 and 5–6 true leaves respectively. The best weed control was obtained by a combination of pre- and post-emergence harrowing, but these treatments also caused yield losses of 12–14% in spring cereals, while no yield losses were observed in peas. Pre-emergence weed harrowing treatments alone or combined with weed harrowing shortly after crop emergence proved to be most effective against the early emerging annual weed species Sinapis arvensis and Galeopsis spp. Post-emergence harrowing alone in peas had no effect on S. arvensis . The late emerging annual weed species Chenopodium album and Polygonum lapathifolium were most effectively controlled when pre-emergence weed harrowing was combined with one or two weed harrowing treatments after crop emergence.     

Influence of liquid manure application method on weed control in spring cereals

Summary Injection of liquid manure (slurry) into the soil is an alternative to the traditional surface application. By the injection method, it is possible to place nutrients closer to the crop sown, thus offering the crop a competitive advantage over weeds. This study compares the response in crop yield, weed density and weed biomass to injection vs. surface application of liquid manure through three growing seasons in barley and oats. The manure applications were combined with treatments of weed harrowing or herbicide spraying or no treatment at all. The levels of weed control and crop yield obtained by harrowing and herbicides were larger when slurry was injected compared with surface application. Without any weed control treatments, the injection method decreased the final weed biomass in barley. The influence of nutrient injection on yield and weed control seemed to be modulated by the time of emergence and the early growth rate of the crop relative to weeds. Thus, because of its early root growth and development, barley responded more quickly to the injection treatment than oats. Consequently, barley became a more competitive crop.     

Assessment of leaf cover and crop soil cover in weed harrowing research using digital images

Objective assessment of crop soil cover, defined as the percentage of leaf cover that has been buried in soil because of weed harrowing, is crucial to further progress in post‐emergence weed harrowing research. Up to now, crop soil cover has been assessed by visual scores, which are biased and context‐dependent. The aim of this study was to investigate whether digital image analysis is a feasible method to estimate crop soil cover in the early growth stages of cereals. Two main questions were examined: (i) how to capture suitable digital images under field conditions with a standard high‐resolution digital camera and (ii) how to analyse the images with an automated digital image analysis procedure. The importance of light conditions, camera angle, size of recorded area, growth stage and direction of harrowing were investigated, in order to establish a standard for image capture and an automated image analysis procedure based on the excess green colour index was developed. The study shows that the automated digital image analysis procedure provided reliable estimations of leaf cover, defined as the proportion of pixels in digital images determined to be green, which were used to estimate crop soil cover. A standard for image capture is suggested and it is recommended that digital image analysis be used to estimate crop soil cover in future research. The prospects of using digital image analysis in future weed harrowing research are discussed.     

Control of weed barley species in winter wheat with sulfosulfuron at different rates and times of application

Field experiments were conducted at five locations in the major wheat production regions of Iran to evaluate the efficacy of sulfosulfuron in controlling weed barley species (including Hordeum spontaneum , Hordeum murinum , Hordeum distichon , and Hordeum vulgare ) in the 2004–2005 and 2005–2006 growing seasons. Sulfosulfuron was applied either postemergence (POST) or preplant-incorporated (PPI) at 0, 20.25, 30.75, 40.5, 51.0, 60.75 or 71.25 g ai ha⁻¹ to plots arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Sulfosulfuron at the recommended rate (20.25 g ai ha⁻¹) failed to provide acceptable control of the weed barley species. However, the level of control increased with the application rate, particularly at rates >51.0 g ai ha⁻¹. Generally, PPI-applied sulfosulfuron resulted in markedly greater control levels than those of a POST application and complete control of H. murinum and H. vulgare was achieved with PPI-applied sulfosulfuron at all rates >20.25 and 30.75 g ai ha⁻¹, respectively. In most cases, the wheat yield increased with the application rate without any crop injury. The highest yield increase (186%) was obtained with a PPI application of 71.25 g ai ha⁻¹.     

Influence of sowing density and spatial pattern of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum) on the suppression of different weed species

To better understand the potential for improving weed management in cereal crops with increased crop density and spatial uniformity, we conducted field experiments over two years with spring wheat ( Triticum aestivum ) and four weed species: lambsquarters ( Chenopodium album ) , Italian ryegrass ( Lolium multiflorum ), white mustard ( Sinapis alba ), and chickweed ( Stellaria media ). The crops were sown at three densities (204, 449, and 721 seeds m⁻²) and in two spatial patterns (normal rows and a highly uniform pattern), and the weeds were sown in a random pattern at a high density. In most cases, the sown weeds dominated the weed community but, in other cases, naturally occurring weeds were also important. There were strong and significant effects regarding the weed species sown, the crop density, and the spatial distribution on the weed biomass in both years. The weed biomass decreased with increased crop density in 29 out of 30 cases. On average, the weed biomass was lower and the grain yield was higher in the uniform compared to the row pattern in both 2001 and 2002. Despite the differences in weed biomass, the responses of L. multiflorum , S. media , and C. album populations to crop density and spatial uniformity were very similar, as were their effects on the grain yield. Sinapis alba was by far the strongest competitor and it responded somewhat differently. Our results suggest that a combination of increased crop density and a more uniform spatial pattern can contribute to a reduction in weed biomass and yield loss, but the effects are smaller if the weeds are taller than the crop when crop–weed competition becomes intense.     

Responses of spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) to foliar or root entry of chlorsulfuron

The objective of this study was to determine whether chlorsulfuron applied post-emergence enters more by roots or by foliage of spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Such differences could explain observed variation in tolerance between cultivars and interactions with environmental factors. Two experiments were conducted in the glasshouse, where chlorsulfuron was applied to either foliage, soil or combined foliage and soil. In the first experiment, application of chlorsulfuron to foliage had less effect on dry matter (DM) than the combined treatment in two cultivars each of barley and wheat. Root DM was more sensitive to chlorsulfuron than shoot DM in both species. Shoot DM of wheat cv. Vulcan tended to be more sensitive to chlorsulfuron than cv. Olympic or both barley cultivars. In the second experiment, application of chlorsulfuron to foliage of two barley cultivars reduced shoot DM by 30–40%, compared with about 70% after soil or combined applications. Root DM was more sensitive than shoot DM, with reductions of 80% after soil or combined applications, and about 50% after foliar application. Root entry of chlorsulfuron in barley thus leads to greater crop injury from the herbicide than foliar entry, and this may explain why rain soon after application leads to more injury from the herbicide. If no rain follows application, uptake of chlorsulfuron primarily by foliage may still reduce barley root growth in some circumstances, which will impair the ability of plants to take up nutrients and water, and the consequences for grain yield will be most severe in drought conditions. Differences in root or foliar entry did not explain culti-var differences in tolerance to chlorsulfuron measured previously in the field. Réponses de l'orge de printemps (Hordeum vulgare L.) et du blé de printemps (Triticum aestivum L.) au chlorsulfuron appliqué par voie foliaire ou racinaire Le but de cette étude était de déterminer si la pénétration du chlorsulfuron appliqué en post levée se fait principalement par les racines ou le feuillage de l'orge de printemps (Hordeum vulgare L.) et du blé de printemps (Triticum aestivum L.). De telles différences pourraient expliquer des variations de tolérance entre variétés et l'effet de facteurs de l'environnement. Deux expériences ont été menées en serre, où le chlorsulfuron était appliqué sur le feuillage, sur le sol ou sur les deux à la fois. Dans la première expérience, sur deux variétés d'orge et deux variétés de blé, l'application de chlorsulfuron sur le feuillage avail moins d'effet sur la production de matière sèche (MS) que le traitement combiné. Chez les deux espèces, la production de MS était plus affectéd dans les racines que dans les parties aériennes. La production de MS par les parties aériennes était plus touchée par le chlorsulfuron chez la variété de blé Vulcan que chez la variété Olympic et chez les deux variétés d'orge. Dans la seconde expérience, l'application de chlorsulfuron sur le feuillage des deux variétés d'orge réduisait la MS des parties aériennes de 30–40%, contre 70% par un traitement sur le sol ou par des applications combinées. Dans les racines, la production de MS était plus affectée que dans le feuillage, avec des réductions de 80% lors de traitements sur le sol ou combinés et environ 50% lors de traitements foliaires. Le chlorsulfuron était plus phytotoxique à l'égard de l'orge quand il pénétrait par les racines que par le feuillage. Ceci pourrait expliquer qu'une pluie survenant peu de temps après le traitement occasionne plus de phytotoxicité. S'il ne pleut pas après le traitement, l'absorption de chlorsulfuron, qui se produit principalement par le feuillage, peut toutefois sous certaines conditions réduire la croissance racinaire de l'orge. La capacité des plantes à absorber les nutriments et l'eau est diminuée, avec pour conséquence que les effets sur le rendement en grain sont plus importants en cas de stress hydrique. Les différences d'absorption racinaire ou foliaire n'expliquent pas les différences de tolérance au chlorsulfuron constatées précédemment au champ entre variétés. Reaktion von Sommergerste (Hordeum vulgare L.) und Sommerweizen (Triticum aestivum L.) auf Blatt- und Wurzelaufnahme von Chlorsulfuron Ziel dieser Untersuchung war es, festzustellen, ob im Nachauflauf angewandtes Chlorsulfuron mehr über die Wurzeln oder über das Blatt von Sommergerste (Hordeum vulgare L.) und Sommerweizen (Triticum aestivum L.) aufgenommen wird. Solche Unterschiede könnten die unterschiedliche Toleranz von Sorten und Interaktionen mit Umweltfaktoren erklären. Bei 2 Gewächshausversuchen, wobei Chlorsulfuron auf das Blatt und/oder den Boden ausgebracht wurde, hatte bei je 2 Gersten- und Weizensorten die Blattapplikation eine geringere Wirkung auf die Trockenmasse-(TM-)Bildung als die kombinierte Ausbringung. Bei beiden Arten war die Wurzel-TM-Bildung empfindlicher als die Sproß-TM-Bildung, wobei diese sich bei der Weizensorte ‘Vulcan’ empfindlicher als bei ‘Olympic’ und den beiden Gerstensorten erwies. Im 2. Versuch verminderte sich nach der Blattapplikation von Chlorsulfuron bei den Gerstensorten die Sproß-TM um 30 bis 40%, nach Boden- oder kombinierter Anwendung um 70%. Die Wurzel-TM-Büdung war (wiederum) mit 80% Verminderung nach Boden- oder kombinierter und 50% nach Blattapplikation empfindlicher als die Sproß-TM-Bildung. Die Aufnahme von Chlorsulfuron über die Wurzeln führt bei Gerste also zu stärkeren Schäden als über das Blatt, womit erklärbar wird, warum das Herbizid bei Regen kurz nach der Anwendung phytotoxischer ist. Wenn nach der Anwendung kein Regen fällt, kann nach Blattaufnahme das Wurzelwachstum unter bestimmten Umständen trotzdem beeinträchtigt sein, wodurch die Wasser- und Nährstoffaufnahme abnimmt, und die Konsequenzen für den Kornertrag werden unter trockenen Bedingungen am stärksten. Aufgrund der Unterschiede der Wurzel- oder Blattaumahme ließen sich die in der Praxis beobachteten Sortenunterschiede der Toleranz gegenüber Chlorsulfuron nicht erklären.     

引进优良啤酒大麦品种（品系）的适应性分析

以陕西关中目前推广的啤酒大麦品种西安91—2为对照，对引进后筛选的啤酒大麦材料斯库拿、D-63、D-67和酿造二条等4个大麦品种（系）进行适应性鉴定分析。试验结果表明，所筛选出的4个大麦品种（系）均有较好的生态适应性。4个大麦品种（系）均能正常成熟；产量均比对照西安91—2增产，其中斯库拿比西安91—2增产30％以上。在产量构成因素中，斯库拿和酿造二条的单位面积穗数比西安91—2多，千粒重比西安91—2大。D-63和D-67的穗粒数明显多于西安91—2。     

Response of wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum) and winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) to sulfosulfuron: The role of degradation

Wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum) is one of the most troublesome weed species in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) in Iran. Two bioassay experiments were conducted in order to study the response of wild barley and wheat to different herbicides and to study the efficacy of pre‐emergence (PRE), postemergence (POST), and PRE followed by POST applications of sulfosulfuron on wild barely. Moreover, the degradation of sulfosulfuron was studied by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC‐MS/MS). The results showed that wild barley was highly tolerant to clodinafop‐propargyl and its dry weight was reduced by only 15%, compared to the control, at the recommended dose (64 g ai ha^?1). Sulfosulfuron reduced the wild barley biomass by ≤50% at the highest dose (90 g ai ha^?1) in the first bioassay but by not more than 20% and 12% at the recommended dose (22 g ai ha^?1) in the first and second bioassay, respectively. Significant differences were found among the application methods of sulfosulfuron, with the POST application being the least effective method. In contrast to the POST application, wild barley was severely injured by the PRE application of sulfosulfuron, with an ED₅₀ dose of 7.3 g ai ha^?1. The degradation study showed that wild barley can metabolize sulfosulfuron that is applied POST, but at a lower rate than wheat. By 4 h after application, wild barley had metabolized 26% of the sulfosulfuron, compared to 46% by wheat. In conclusion, wild barley can metabolize the recommended dose of sulfosulfuron that is applied POST; thus, the PRE application of sulfosulfuron or other integrated methods should be considered for the effective control of wild barley in wheat.