Computed Tomography of the Prostate Gland in Healthy Intact Dogs and Dogs with Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia

To date, there is only scarce data on the evaluation of the prostate gland in dogs using computed tomography (CT). The aims of our study were to describe CT features of BPH in dogs and to determine the size of the prostate gland in healthy male dogs and dogs with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) through CT. Additionally, we aimed to compare and establish the most useful parameters for CT measurements of the prostate in patients with BPH. The study population consisted of 20 healthy intact male dogs and 20 male intact dogs with confirmed BPH. Pre‐ and post‐contrast CT studies were evaluated. The most common CT features in dogs with recognized BPH were symmetrical prostatomegaly and heterogeneity of the prostatic parenchyma. The mean prostatic density (D) was 56HU (±4.39) in pre‐contrast CT images and 84HU (±8) in post‐contrast images in dogs with BPH. The mean prostatic length (L) was 43.87 mm (±11), the mean width (W) amounted to 48.95 mm (±8.76) and the mean height (H) reached 44.9 mm (±9.48) in clinically affected patients. The mean ratios were: rL ? 2,12 (±0.5); rW ? 2.39 (±0.53) and rH ? 2.16 (±0.39) in the BPH group. The prostate should be considered to be enlarged when rL exceeds 3.05; rW exceeds 3.38 and rH exceeds 2.94. Our findings indicated that CT is a useful tool in diagnosing prostate disorders, including BPH. The heterogeneity, density and ratios of prostatic length, width and height can be useful parameters in the diagnosis of BPH.     

Repeatability and Reliability of Heart Rate Variability in Healthy,Adult Pony Mares

Heart rate variability (HRV) is an important noninvasive method to quantify stress by measuring sympathetic and parasympathetic activity of the autonomic nervous system. Few studies exist on the repeatability and reliability of HRV in equids. The objectives of this study were to (1) compare the effect of different correction factors (CF) available in HRV analysis software on HRV indicator values and (2) to determine the repeatability and reliability of HRV indicators in an unrestricted (pasture) and a restricted movement (equine examination stocks) environment. Data were recorded on five consecutive days from six adult pony mares. Short-term tachograms were compared with regard to software CF by graphical and statistical (Friedman's and Wilcoxon signed rank test) comparison. The results showed that the specific CF influences the HRV indicator values. The strong CF was able to balance the elimination of artefacts without removing the variability of RR intervals and was subsequently used to determine repeatability and reliability. HRV indicators showed good repeatability over the 5 days using Friedman test (pasture, P = .162–.898; examination stocks, P = .29–.865), indicating that there were no significant differences between HRV indicator values. The reliability, represented by intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and coefficient of variation (CV), was poor-to-good for pasture data (ICC = 0.44–0.79; CV = 10–68.10) and examination stocks data (ICC = 0.22–0.83; CV = 16.07–62.29). Measurements obtained from the examination stocks were less reliable than those from pasture. Using normalized low-frequency and normalized high-frequency components improved reliability. Free-movement environment-based HRV recordings could ensure better reliability but may require the use of a stronger CF.     

Colour-coded and Pulsed Doppler Sonography of the Canine Testis, Epididymis and Prostate Gland: Physiological and Pathological Findings

Two-dimensional ultrasound was used in combination with colour-coded and pulsed Doppler sonography to study the blood flow of the testes and prostate gland in a total of 30 male dogs. After detection of the vessels by colour-coded Doppler sonography, the blood flow patterns were determined by pulsed Doppler sonography measuring and describing the systolic and diastolic peak velocity (SPV, DPV), the end-diastolic velocity, the time-averaged maximum velocity (TAMAX), the pulsatility and resistance index, as well as the ratios of the systolic peak velocity and end-diastolic velocity and of the systolic and diastolic peak velocities. The blood flow of the testicular artery was measured within the pampiniform plexus and the marginal location. The prostatic blood supply was measured in the artery of the deferential duct (cranial), the prostatic artery outside (lateral) and within the gland (subcapsular). The physiological testicular flow pattern was monophasic with a high diastolic flow. Testes with neoplastic alterations showed a significant increase of SPV and TAMAX. The epididymal vessels could not be detected. Under physiological conditions the prostatic blood flow pattern was biphasic in the cranial and lateral location and monophasic in the subcapsular location. Benign prostatic hyperplasia was characterized by a significant increase of SPV, DPV and TAMAX. The results of the present investigation demonstrate that the colour-coded and pulsed Doppler sonography give additional valuable information which improves the andrological diagnostics in the dog.     

Evaluation of Intra‐ and Interobserver Variability and Repeatability of Tibial Plateau Angle Measurements with Digital Radiography Using a Novel Digital Radiographic Program

Objective— To compare the intra‐ and interobserver variability occurring when observers with differing experience levels measure tibial plateau angles (TPAs) with a novel digital radiographic projection program (tibial plateau leveling osteotomy [TPLO] planning program), the Kodak Picture Archiving and Communications System (PACS), and standard sized printed films (SF). Study Design— Cross‐sectional study. Sample Population— Dogs (n=36) with cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) rupture that had a TPLO. Methods— Six observers, divided into 3 equal groups based on experience level, measured TPA on 36 digitally captured radiographic images of tibiae of dogs clinically affected with CCL rupture. Each observer used 3 methods of measuring TPA and repeated the measurements 3 times with each method. The intra‐ and interobserver variability was compared using the coefficient of variation. Results— Averaged over all replications and images, there was no significant difference (P>.05) in the average variability occurring with each method for all but 1 observer. There was no effect of experience level on measurement variability; however, interobserver variability was significantly less with measurements made with the PACS and TPLO planning program compared with measurements made from SF (P<.05). Conclusions— Repeated measurements of TPA made using digital images and computer‐based measurement programs were significantly less variable between observers than those made from images printed on standard radiographic films. Clinical Relevance— Digital radiography and computer‐based measurement programs are effective for determining the TPA, allowing less variability in measurements compared with SF. The ability to manipulate the image may allow better identification of anatomic landmarks.     

Computed Tomography Atlas of the Normal Cranial Canine Abdominal Vasculature Enhanced by Dual‐phase Angiography

This study was performed to provide a detailed atlas of the normal arterial and venous canine vasculature in the cranial abdomen by dual‐phase computed tomographic angiography. Five adult beagles were positioned in dorsal recumbency on a multislice helical CT scanner. An unenhanced survey CT scan from the diaphragm to the pelvic inlet was performed. Bolus‐tracking software was used for the dual‐phase angiogram, and contrast medium was administered in a cephalic vein. The arterial phase was scanned from the mid‐abdomen to the cranial aspect of the diaphragm; the portal phase was scanned a few seconds after the arterial phase in the opposite direction. The DICOM studies from all dogs were analysed. Representative images were selected and anatomic structures labelled. Maximum intensity projections and three‐dimensional images were generated using software techniques. A detailed atlas of the venous and arterial vasculature of the cranial canine abdomen was created with the help of bolus‐tracking dual‐phase computed tomographic angiography (CTA). Practitioners can use this anatomic atlas with its detailed venous and arterial phase CT angiograms of the canine cranial abdomen to compare normal versus abnormal vascular anatomy.     

Prevalence of AmpC‐ and Extended‐Spectrum β‐Lactamase‐Harbouring Enterobacteriaceae in Faecal Flora of a Healthy Domestic Canine Population

In order to estimate the prevalence of AmpC‐ and ESBL β‐lactamase‐producing Enterobacteriaceae in the faecal flora of a healthy domestic canine population, faecal samples were obtained from healthy dogs receiving routine parasitology screening at the Ohio State University Veterinary Medical Center, between January 2013 and April 2013. Samples were screened for the presence of AmpC and ESBL β‐lactamase phenotypes, and the clinically important genotypes, bla_CMY and bla_CTX‐M, were confirmed via conventional PCR. Minimum inhibitory concentrations were determined for isolates and plasmids were characterized. Two hundred and twelve canine faecal samples were screened, of which 30 harboured isolates carrying the AmpC bla_CMY, representing 14.2% of the population (95% CI: 9.4–18.9%). Nine samples harboured isolates that carried the ESBL bla_CTX‐M, representing 4.2% of the population (95% CI: 1.5–7.0%). Isolates containing bla_CMY harboured multiple plasmid replicon types, while isolates containing bla_CTX‐M harboured few plasmid replicon types. Our results suggest that domestic dogs may serve as a reservoir for extended‐spectrum cephalosporin resistance genes for other domestic animal populations as well as for their human companions. This represents a potential veterinary and public health risk that warrants further investigation and continued surveillance to ascertain the nature and extent of the risk. The high level of diversity of plasmid content among isolates harbouring bla_CMY suggests broader dissemination relative to bla_CTX‐M isolates.     

Establishment of a Method to Measure Length of the Ulnar Nerve and Standardize F-wave Values in Clinically Normal Beagles

We designed a new method of measuring the length of the ulnar nerve and determining standard values for F-wave parameters of the ulnar nerve in clinically normal beagles. Nerve length must be precisely measured to determine F-wave latency and conduction velocity. The length of the forelimb has served as the length of the ulnar nerve for F-wave assessments, but report indicates that F-wave latency is proportional to the length of the pathway traveled by nerve impulses. Therefore, we measured the surface distance from a stimulus point to the spinous process of the first thoracic vertebra (nerve length 1) and the anterior horn of the scapula (nerve length 2) as landmarks through the olecranon and the shoulder blade acromion. The correlation coefficients between the shortest F-wave latency and the length of nerves 1, 2 or the forelimb were 0.61, 0.7 and 0.58. Nerve length 2 generated the highest value. Furthermore, the anterior horn of the scapula was easily palpated in any dog regardless of well-fed body. We concluded that nerve length 2 was optimal for measuring the length of the ulnar nerve.     

Age‐Dependent Morphology of NADPH Diaphorase‐Positive Amacrine Cells in the Mouse Retina

NADPH diaphorase‐positive amacrine cells (NAC) were studied in retinal whole mount preparation of mice, ranging from 1 day to 30 months of age. Following a peak in number and size during early development at postnatal day 14, their number and distribution remained well preserved up to senescence. Functional considerations include immunological, vascular and neuro‐modulating aspects.     

Ultrasonographic Characteristics of the Adrenal Glands in Dogs With Pituitary-Dependent Hyperadrenocorticism: Comparison With Normal Dogs

Ultrasonographic evaluation of the adrenal glands was performed in 10 dogs with pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism (PDH) and in 10 age- and weight-matched healthy control dogs. Thickness, shape, and echogenicity were determined for each adrenal gland. Adrenal thickness in dogs with PDH (median, 10 mm-left; 8.5 mm-right) was significantly greater than thickness in control dogs (median, 6 mm-left; 6 mm-right). Other ultrasonographic characteristics associated with PDH included bilaterally symmetrical adrenomegaly and maintenance of normal adrenal shape. Adrenal echogenicity was homogeneous and less than that of the adjacent renal cortex in 8 of 10 dogs with PDH and in 10 of 10 control dogs. Heterogenous echogenicity was present in 2 of 10 dogs with PDH, and was associated with nodular cortical hyperplasia in one of those dogs. Results of this study confirm the difference in sonographic appearance between PDH-induced bilateral cortical hyperplasia and functional adrenocortical neoplasia, and show a difference in so-nographically determined adrenal size between healthy dogs and dogs with PDH. J Vet Intern Med 1996; 10:110–115. Copyright © 1996 by the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine .     

Sero‐epidemiology of Canine Leptospirosis in Trinidad: Serovars,Implications for Vaccination and Public Health

A sero‐epidemiological study on canine leptospirosis was conducted in house, stray, farm and hunting dogs, as well as in suspect cases of clinical canine leptospirosis. Serum samples were collected from apparently healthy (vaccinated and non‐vaccinated), house dogs. A questionnaire was administered to the owners to elicit information on risk factors for leptospirosis. The microscopic agglutination test was used to screen for leptospirosis using 17 international serovars. Reciprocal titres of between 100 and <800 were considered as evidence of past exposure while reciprocal titres of 800 or greater were classified as suggestive of acute/current infection. Of a total of 419 serum samples tested, 61 (14.6%) were seropositive for Leptospira agglutinins, 23 (5.5%) had mixed infections and 16 (3.8%) had current infection. Amongst 50 suspected cases of clinical leptospirosis, 24 (48.0%) were seropositive and only 13 (26.0%) had current infection compared with 10 (6.3%) and three (1.9%) of 160 apparently healthy house dogs respectively. The difference was statistically significant (P < 0.05; χ²). Twelve (25.5%) of 47 hunting dogs, 10 (20.4%) of 49 farm dogs and five (4.4%) of 113 stray dogs were seropositive (P < 0.05; χ²). Overall, a total of nine serovars were detected with serovars mankarso, icterohaemorrhagiae RGA, autumnalis and copenhageni being involved in 29 (47.5%), 20 (32.8%), 25 (41.0%) and 10 (16.4%) respectively in 61 seropositive dogs (P < 0.05; χ²). Serovar mankarso was most predominant in seropositive apparently healthy dogs, 37.8% (14/37), suspected clinical cases of leptospirosis, 62.5% (15/24) compared with serovar icterohaemorrhagiae with a frequency of 21.6% (8/37) and 50.0% (12/24), the difference being statistically significant (P < 0.05; χ²). Although all vaccines used for prevention of canine leptospirosis in the country contain serovars canicola and icterohaemorrhagiae, serovar mankarso was mostly associated with infection and disease and may be a good candidate for inclusion in the vaccine used locally. The public health risk posed to owners of dogs infected with Leptospira cannot be over‐emphasized considering the zoonotic nature of the disease.     

Evidence‐Based Medicine in Canine Reproduction: Quality of Current Available Literature

The objective of this study was to evaluate the quality of published literature on reproduction in dogs. A systematic search in online databases revealed 287 papers that met the inclusion criteria. For evaluation a questionnaire comprising 40 criteria regarding materials and methodology, study design, statistics, presentation and information content, applicability and conclusions was developed. In a pre‐test including seven independent scientists the applicability and explanatory power of the questionnaire and its results were validated. Out of 287 publications evaluated, 90 (31.4%) were classified as clinical trials. The remaining 197 publications were case reports or contained information based on personal experience. Not a single meta‐analysis was found. Sixty (66.7%) of the 90 clinical trials included a control group. Randomization was conducted in 23 and blinding in eight articles respectively. In total five articles were determined as randomized, controlled and blinded clinical trials. Information content of the publications was variable concerning details on included animals, type or dosage of used remedies or conducted interventions. For example, in 99.7% of the articles, the exact number of animals was given, but in 79.8%, housing and feeding of the animals were not described. Statistical procedures of clinical trials were determined adequate in 55.6%. However, the data of 67.9% of the articles were evaluated to be not sufficient to draw valid conclusions. This study revealed evidence of deficits in the field of canine reproduction. The demand for more high quality clinical research is obvious. Requisite for the further implementation of the evidence‐based veterinary medicine is an improvement of the quantity and the quality of well‐designed, conducted and reported clinical trials. The practitioner should always assess the quality of information before implementing results into practice to provide best available care for the animals.     

Seroprevalence of Canine Herpesvirus‐1 in the Belgian Dog Population in 2000

Canine herpesvirus‐1 (CHV‐1) is known to be associated with fertility and fecundity disorders as well as neonatal mortality in puppies of less than 3 weeks of age. The virus is presumed to be enzootic in dogs all over the world and recent studies in several European countries suggest a high seroprevalence among the dog population. In the year 2000, a total of 647 Belgian canine sera from 102 privately owned patients and 545 breeding dogs were analysed with an enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Furthermore 77 of the samples were submitted to two serum neutralization (SN) tests for comparison. An overall CHV‐1 seroprevalence of 45.75% was observed in the Belgian dog population. No significant differences could be observed based on breeding status, reason for consultation or sex. The correlation between the ELISA and both SN tests appeared to be moderate with a significantly greater sensitivity of the ELISA. This study also demonstrated that the CHV‐1 seroprevalence in the Belgian dog population is similar to that in other recently investigated European countries and that the incidence in breeding units is not necessarily higher than in non‐breeding dogs.     

Expression of Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMP‐2, MMP‐9) and their Inhibitors (TIMP‐1, TIMP‐2) in Canine Testis,Epididymis and Semen

This study aims to investigate the role of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in determining semen quality and to evaluate the expression and cellular localization of MMP‐2, MMP‐9, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase‐1 (TIMP‐1) and TIMP‐2 in the testes, epididymis and ejaculated spermatozoa. Gelatinase activities between normal (n = 21) and abnormal (n = 25) semen samples showed a significant, sixfold increase in proMMP‐2 and MMP‐2 activity in high than low sperm concentration samples (p < 0.001). ProMMP‐9 and MMP‐9 levels were significantly elevated in samples with low sperm counts compared to those with high sperm density (p < 0.001). High levels of proMMP‐2 and MMP‐2 were associated with high sperm motility (≥70%, p < 0.001). Sperm‐rich fraction showed significantly (eight‐fold) higher proMMP‐9 enzymatic activity compared with prostatic fraction. The mRNA expressions of MMP‐2, MMP‐9, TIMP‐1 and TIMP‐2 were confirmed in testicular and epididymal tissues. Immunohistochemical staining illustrated the MMP‐2‐specific strong immunoreactivity in the head of mature spermatids during spermatogenesis, whereas MMP‐9, TIMP‐1 and TIMP‐2 were absent in these cells. Matrix metalloproteinase‐9 immunoreactivity was observed in the spermatocyte and round spermatid, whereas TIMP‐1 was only exhibited in the residual bodies. Immunolabeling of epididymal and ejaculated sperm demonstrated MMP‐2 localization along acrosomal region of sperm, while MMP‐9, TIMP‐1 and TIMP‐2 localization was merely limited to the flagella. In conclusion, spermatozoa initially acquire MMP‐2 during their formation at testicular level, and the presence of this protein persists through the epididymal transit and up to ejaculate. The enzymatic activity of MMP‐2 and MMP‐9 may serve as an alternative biomarker in determining semen quality.