A study on morphology and morphometric parameters on skull of the Bardhoka autochthonous sheep breed in Kosovo

In this study, we aim to investigate the skull of Bardhoka sheep, which is the native breed of Kosovo by utilising normal morphometric methods. Differences between male and female were also statistically analysed. Further, the parameters that can be used in gender discrimination were also analysed. The statistical analysis was based on a sample of 24 adult skulls of Bardhoka breed with 12 female and 12 male skulls. Altogether, 31 different measurements were taken morphologically and 7 different indices were applied. Except for the measurement's values of the orbit, measurement's values of length of the cheek tooth row and the measurement's values of height of the foramen magnum, all the measured values of males were higher than females. Nasal index, cranium index and skull index values were statistically significant between both genders. It is envisaged that the findings of this study will motivate and assist other comparative studies with other autochthonous sheep and goat breeds found in the Dukagjini region or in clinical veterinary practice and even in zooarchaeology.     

Morphometric analysis of the skull of Hamdani sheep via Three-Dimensional modelling

The aim of the present study was to determine the craniometric characteristics of the crania of Hamdani sheep, one of local breeds of Turkey, by using computed tomography (CT). In the study, 13 (six female and seven male) skulls were used. After CT images of the skulls were taken, their three-dimensional models were created by MIMICS 20.1 (The Materialise Group, Leuven, Belgium) program. Thirty-eight craniometric measurements were taken over the models created and nine indices were calculated by using these measurements. All the characteristics examined were expressed as mean ± SE. In the study, statistically significant differences were found between females and males in terms of greatest neurocranium breadth, facial breadth, greatest palatal breadth (p < 0.05) and height of the foramen magnum (p < 0.01) parameters. No statistically significant difference was observed between the sexes in the calculated index values (p > 0.05). In conclusion, it is thought that the findings obtained from the study will contribute to the zooarchaeology and sheep taxonomy of Mesopotamian region.     

Morphological analysis of the foramen magnum of dogs from the Iron Age

The investigations were carried out on 37 skulls from the Van-Yoncatepe early Iron Age necropolis (in eastern Anatolia) (first group) and 11 skulls from the scythians castle from Bileskoje Iron Age (second group). The major distance between both occipital condyles and both bases of the jugular processes, the major width of the foramen magnum, height of the foramen magnum, height of the skull, height of the occipital triangle and the length of the dorsal notch were measured. A dorsal notch was present in seven dogs (six male and one female) from Van-Yoncatepe. The average length of the dorsal notch was 2.5 mm. The investigation states that the dorsal notch occurred in dogs from the Iron Age. This anatomical formation had no association with their death.     

Morphological investigations of the occipital area in adult American Staffordshire Terriers

Morphological investigations into the occipital area were carried out on the skulls of 24 adult American Staffordshire Terriers. The dorsal notch was found in one skull. The normal height (h) and width (W) of the foramen magnum was measured, and the foramen magnum index was calculated. In the case of the presence of the dorsal notch, total height (H) and normal height (h) of foramen magnum were measured, and dorsal notch height (N) was estimated. The mean value of the foramen magnum index (FMIa = W/H × 100) was 82.7. The foramen magnum index with the exception of the skull with dorsal notch (FMIb = W/h × 100) was 77.89. The dysplasia index (ISD = N/h × 100) was 44.05. A radiographic evaluation was made according to the method introduced by Rusbridge. Occipital dysplasia is not a clinical problem itself but can provoke one.     

Resolution of life-threatening dysphagia caused by caudal occipital malformation syndrome following foramen magnum decompressive surgery

A Cavalier King Charles Spaniel was presented with acute onset, life-threatening dysphagia suspected to be secondary to medulla oblongata compression caused by caudal occipital malformation syndrome. The patient required urgent tracheostomy tube placement to remain stable and was subsequently cured of the presenting neurological deficits by foramen magnum decompressive surgery. Neurogenic dysphagia is a relatively common presenting sign in human Chiari malformation syndromes, but has not been described as a major clinical sign in veterinary patients. Caudal occipital malformation syndrome should be included in the differential diagnosis list for susceptible breeds presenting with dysphagia. Early recognition favours expeditious surgical intervention and a positive outcome in human patients, and this may also be the case in veterinary patients.     

Dorsal notch of foramen magnum due to incomplete ossification of supraoccipital bone in dogs

The shape of the foramen magnum and the variation in the ossification pattern of the supra-occipital bone were studied in 48 skulls, including 12 from neonatal and 33 from immature and mature beagles of known age. The shape varied markedly, and a dorsal notch, dorsomedial to the nuchal tubercles and present in over half of the beagles, developed as a result of incomplete ossification of the ventromedial part of the supra-occipital bone. In a pomeranian and a chihuahua a membrane of dure mater and connective tissue, which covered the prominent dorsal notch, prevented prolapse of the brain. The spinal cord passed through a smaller oval opening in the ventral half of the foramen magnum. As there was no apparent impairment of function or anomalies associated with the dorsal notch and since a prominent dorsal notch was common in small breeds with brachycephalic skulls, it was concluded that the dorsal notch is a variation in the normal morphological pattern.     

Morphological Analysis and Osteometry of the Foramen Magnum of the One‐Humped Camel (Camelus dromedarius)

The foramen magnum (FM) has been an integral component of studies on the ontogeny and evolutionary transformation of the skull. While its shape is variable in different species and breeds, the morphological variations and metrical indices of the foramen have scarcely been studied in camels. A total of 30 adult camel heads with equal sex disparity from three different locations of Northern Nigeria were used in this study for determining the morphological characteristics and osteometry of their foramen magnum. The study reported a mean foramen magnum height and width of 4.04 ± 0.15 and 3.70 ± 0.16 cm, and 3.65 ± 0.27 and 3.45 ± 0.21 cm in the overall males and females, respectively, and a foramen magnum index (FMI) in adult camels, which was over 100. We propose a classification for the morphology of foramen magnum in camels demarcating them into three types. The dorsal border of the foramen presented either a smoothly curved bony margin (Type I), a small, ventrally directed, median bony protrusion (Type II) or a dorsal notch (Type III). No significant osteometric differences were found in any of the variables of the foramen magnum measured in the adult camels (FMH, FMW and FMI) of the various geographical locations, nor between animals of either gender except for the FMH that had a significantly higher mean value in overall males.     

A study of the radiographic anatomy of the foramen magnum in dogs

The shape and size of the foramen magnum were investigated in a number of breeds. It was found that dorsal extension occurred in toy breeds, both with and without neurological symptoms. An increase in the size of the foramen magnum was not necessarily associated with a pathological process.     

IDENTIFICATION OF ARACHNOID CYSTS IN THE QUADRIGEMINAL CISTERN USING ULTRASONOGRAPHY

The ultrasonographic findings in three small breed dogs with intracranial arachnoid cysts are described. Ultrasound images were obtained via the foramen magnum, temporal window and persistent bregmatic fontanelle (when possible). In transverse, dorsal and sagittal transcranial ultrasound images there was marked dilation of the lateral ventricles and a well-defined, oval to triangular-shaped anechoic area between the caudal aspect of the occipital lobes, dorsal to the midbrain, and rostral to the cerebellum. These findings were consistent with a diagnosis of concurrent hydrocephalus and an arachnoid cyst within the quadrigeminal cistern.     

Meningiomas in cats: a retrospective clinical study of 36 cases.

Thirty-six cases of meningiomas in cats were reviewed as to the clinical signs and anatomic location. Age, breed, and sex also were noted. It was found that, in general, meningiomas affected older cats, with two thirds of them being greater than or equal to 10 years old. There was no breed predilection, although there was a majority of male cats. In most cases, the anatomic location was supratentorial, with only one case being infratentorial, and no tumors were below the foramen magnum. A number of cats had multiple maningiomas, and this often complicated the anatomic localization by neurologic examination. Tentorial herniation (6 cases) was associated with positional nystagmus or tetraparesis, or both, in addition to the deficits caused by the tumor.     

A longitudinal study on growth and growth variables in dogs of four large breeds raised in domestic environments

The main objective of this study was to describe the growth patterns of 4 large dog breeds [Newfoundland (NF), Labrador retriever (LR), Leonberger (LEO), and Irish wolfhound (IW)] raised in domestic environments and concomitant changes in 2 growth-related clinical variables: total serum alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and the circumference of the distal radius and ulna (CDRU). The second objective was to investigate whether these measurements were affected by a range of independent variables like age, sex, litter number, and birth weight. Seven hundred dogs were included in the study, and BW data, separated by breed and sex, were fitted to the Gompertz function. Birth weight, adjusted for litter number, differed significantly between sexes for 3 breeds (LEO, P = 0.004; NF, P = 0.02; LR, P = 0.009) and approached significance for IW (P = 0.07). Estimated mean BW increased rapidly during the first 100 d after birth in all 4 breeds, then plateaued, with maturity being reached between 351 (female LR) and 413 d (male NF). Estimated mature BW ranged from 30.8 kg for the female LR up to 65.7 kg for the male IW. Weight gain, as expressed by the derivative of the Gompertz function, reached its peak in the smallest breed (LR) at the youngest age, 89 d for the females and 95 d for males. Log-transformed BW was significantly related to age, breed, and sex, and the age x sex and age x breed interactions. Within breeds, age, birth weight, and litter number had a significant effect on log-transformed BW. The estimated average CDRU increased from 90 d of age toward a peak at 180 d. Thereafter, CDRU declined and stabilized at about 1 yr of age. The estimated total ALP concentrations decreased from 90 to 360 d of age, after which they stabilized, at mean concentrations varying among breeds from 98 to 131 IU/L. Maximum least squares mean total ALP concentrations were found at 3 mo of age in all breeds, with the greatest least squares mean concentration in the IW breed (713 IU/L). In a mixed model analysis of the complete data set, total ALP was affected (P < 0.001) by age, breed, and the interaction of age x breed. This study described the main factors influencing growth and provided reference data for other studies, including those related to nutrition and disorders of growth.     

An anatomical study of the dorsal and ventral nasal conchal bullae and middle nasal conchae in normal Shetland ponies: Computed tomographic anatomical and morphometric findings

Equine paranasal sinuses are susceptible to inflammation. Insufficient drainage through the nasal passages and meatus may lead to the accumulation of inspissated purulent discharge. Particularly in ponies, these anatomical structures are suspected to be relatively small. To date, there are no reports considering the morphology of nasal conchal bullae in small horse breeds such as Shetland ponies. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the size of the conchal bullae and the medial nasal conchae of Shetland ponies and their relation to the skull dimension using computed tomography. Reconstructed images of healthy adult heads of Shetland ponies were used. Linear skull measurements as well as two cranial indices of the head dimensions were taken. Length, width and height of the dorsal and ventral conchal bullae and the medial nasal conchae were measured in relation to the skull and compared with the data of skulls of large breed horses. The anatomical proportions of pony heads were characterized by a smaller cranial index and a greater nasal index than those of large breed horses. Shetland ponies showed a longer cranial length compared with the nasal length. Heads are consistently smaller, and the relationship of the bullae to the head length was also smaller than those measured in large breed horses. A negative correlation between the head and bullae size was found. In conclusion, this study suggests that Shetland ponies have distinguishing proportions of the head. These findings are relevant for clinical examination and surgical treatment of equine sinus disease in those breeds.     

Morphometric investigations of breed-specific features in feline skulls and considerations on their functional implications

A total of 17 parameters (nine lengths, four heights, four widths) was used to characterize the shape of the skull in a sample of 69 pure bred cats. Results of the discriminant analysis confirmed three phenotypically different skull formations, i.e. the round-shaped, the triangular and the cuneiform. Further statistical analyses revealed that the appearance of the skull was especially variable in the case of a round shape and that the lengths had been especially affected by these characteristics. The round shape of the brachycephalic skull was attributed to a reduction in length of the face and braincase as well. In many cases, this condition was associated with disproportional increase in height and width of the braincase and an increase in convexity of the calvaria. The decrease in length of the face was more pronounced at the dorsal surface of the nose than at the palate. Therefore, the inclination of the bony nasal aperture became flatter and the inclination of the maxilloturbinate became steeper. As a result, the ventral nasal meatus changed its direction twice. This condition might predispose to dyspnoea by restricting the air passageways within the nasal cavity. Round-shaped skulls were also associated with a decrease in facial width. Morphological variants that were frequently seen in round-shaped skulls include almost rectangular inclination of the nasal bone and more distant extension of the foramen magnum between the occipital condyles.     

Behavior of dogs

The present results of comparative ethology in different dog breeds make plain their very variable demands in social life as in other environmental criteria. Dog breeds differ as greatly in behaviour characteristics that environmental demands in dogs are less to be described as "species typical" rather than as breed specific. Characteristics in behaviour that are typical of certain dog breeds could be proved especially in the following fields: 1. Ontogeny of behaviour does not develop in a "domestic dog typical" way, rather it is characterized by significant differences among dog breeds concerning the rate of development of certain behavioural characters and physiological processes (both relative retardation and relative acceleration compared to the ontogeny of behaviour in wolves). 2. There are breed typical differences in expressive behaviour and in communication. 3. Dog breeds show differences in social behaviour and bonding behaviour toward humans.     

Effect of Breed and Body Weight on Echocardiographic Values in Four Breeds of Dogs of Differing Somatotype

Eighty normal dogs of four morphologically disparate breeds (Pembroke Welsh Corgi, Miniature Poodle, Afghan Hound, Golden Retriever) (twenty of each breed), were studied by echocardiography to determine the importance of breed and weight in establishing normal echocardiographic reference ranges. Echocardiographic measurements included left-ventricular chamber dimension at systole and end-diastole, right-ventricular chamber dimension at end-diastole, interventricular septal thickness at systole and end-diastole, left-ventricular free wall thickness at systole and end-diastole, E-point septal separation, aortic root dimension at end-diastole, left atrial dimension, and fractional shortening. Analyses of covariance indicated that for all measurements except right-ventricular chamber dimension, the means were significantly different among breeds, after the differences in weight were taken into account. Echocardiographic measurements are variable even within the same breed. Breed must be considered in establishing echocardiographic measurement reference ranges. Echocardiographic values for each breed are presented.     

Descriptions of anatomical differences between skulls and mandibles of Equus zebra and E. burchelli from Southern Africa

The external anatomical differences between the skulls and mandibles of 10 mountain zebras Equus zebra and 10 plains zebras E. burchelli of both sexes were studied. The nomenclature used conforms to Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria (1983). Eleven structural differences are described for the first time and illustrated, viz., outline of the foramen magnum; length of the alar canal; comparative presence of the For. alare parvum; proportions of the mastoid process of the temporal bone; shape and development of the pterygoid crest; notch at the rostral end of the facial crest in E. burchelli; different inclination of the caudal end of the zygomatic arch; shape and length of the retroarticular process; relative size of the supraorbital foramina; presence of incisive canals in E. zebra; difference in the junction of the interalveolar border of the mandible with the alveolar border of the first cheek tooth. If three or more differences are used for identification, it should be possible to train any worker to distinguish between the skulls of these two species.     

中国四个地方驴品种mtDNA D-Loop部分序列分析与系统进化研究

对中国4个家驴品种95个个体的mtDNAD—loop部分序列进行测序。用clustalX软件进行同源序列比对。Dnasp4-10软件用于遗传多样性分析，计算单倍型多样度、核苷酸多样度、平均核苷酸差异。MEGA3．1软件采用邻接法构建系统进化树并进行系统发生分析。以欧洲驴线粒体基因组为对照（Genbank登录号为X97337），中国家驴4个品种95个个体385bp序列共检测到核苷酸多态位点33个，其中31个位点为转换，1个位点为颠换，1个位点有插入现象。95个序列由31个单倍型组成，单倍型比例为32．6％。德州驴单倍型比例最高为100％，凉州驴单倍型比例最低为42．42％。31个单倍型与引用Genbank已登录的13条序列构建系统发育树，发现31个单倍型聚为两支，说明中国家驴可能有两个母系起源。以欧洲野驴线粒体D—loop为对照（登录号为AF403063、AF403063、AF403065），揭示本研究涉及的中国家驴品种与非洲野驴的进化亲缘关系较亚洲野驴近，并且从分子水平证明中国家驴可能起源于非洲野驴中的索马里野驴分支。     

Evaluation of genetic diversity in Japanese Brown cattle population by pedigree analysis

The Japanese Brown is the second most common domestic beef breed in Japan. However, nowadays this breed is facing reduction in numbers because of pressure from a profitable domestic breed. This breed is uniformly characterized by its brown coat colour, but is comprised of two isolated sub‐breeds, Kumamoto and Kouchi, each possessing a different gene pool. Pedigree analyses were carried out for the two sub‐breeds using the pedigree records of animals born from 1970 to 2000. The effective population size has been found to be consistently reducing during the last three decades in both sub‐breeds. The current effective sizes were estimated to be 25.5 and 6.0 for the Kumamoto and Kouchi sub‐breeds, respectively. The estimate of the effective number of founders (N_ef) in the Kumamoto sub‐breed decreased from 152.1 to 74.4; that of non‐founders (N_enf), from 41.7 to 5.3; and that of founder genome equivalents (N_ge), from 32.7 to 4.9. The corresponding changes in the Kouchi sub‐breed were from 108.2 to 79.4, 16.2 to 4.1, and 14.1 to 3.9. Increasing differences between the two genetic diversity indices in the sub‐breeds indicate that the greater part of the reduction of genetic diversity can be attributed to genetic drift that accumulated in the non‐founder generations. A comparison with published estimates for several cattle breeds suggests the extremely limited genetic diversity of Japanese Brown. In addition to the avoidance of further reduction of genetic diversity, it will be important to counteract the process of breed decline by establishing a production system to efficiently utilize the unique characteristics of this breed and by developing links between the breed and products with market value.     

The small East African shorthorn zebu cows in Kenya. I: Linear body measurements

Assessment of genetic diversity is a prerequisite for the management and conservation of animal genetic resources. Appropriate design of breeding programmes is therefore impossible for breeds that have not been adequately characterized either phenotypically and/or genetically. Phenotypic characteristics are important in breed identification and classification in ways that farming communities can relate with. This study phenotypically characterized two breeds of zebu cattle in Kenya. A total of 12 measurements (face length, ear length, horn length, heart girth, height at withers, chest depth, body length, height at rump, pelvis width, corpus length, pin bone width and tail length) were collected on 373 Maasai and 277 Kamba zebu kept by traditional farmers in south-east Kenya. The data were classified on the basis of breed group, age group, sex and coat colour pattern. Breed group, age group and sex significantly influenced all measurements. Coat colour pattern significantly influenced only height at withers, corpus length, ear length and tail length. Except for horn and ear length, all the other measurements were significantly higher for the Maasai zebu. Additionally, the Maasai zebu was taller than it was long. The opposite was true for the Kamba zebu. The Maasai and Kamba zebus can be classified as medium-sized breeds; however, great variations exist in their body sizes within and between the breeds.     

A Macro‐Anatomical Investigation of the Some Skull Bones of Nehring's Blind Mole Rats (Spalacidae: Nannospalax nehringi)

This study was aimed to demonstrate the specific anatomical features of the skull bones of Nehring's blind mole rats. Eight skulls, belonging to animals of both sexes, were used. The occipital squama contributed to the formation of the caudal portion of the skull roof. The foramen magnum was quite large. The external occipital crest was present only in the males. The parietal bones formed the middle portion of the skull roof together with the well‐developed inter‐parietal bones. The zygomatic process of the temporal bone formed the zygomatic arch by extending to the temporal process of the zygomatic bone. The zygomatic process of the frontal bone and the frontal process of the zygomatic bone laterally bordered the orbit. There was a single septal process of the nasal bone. Each ramus of the mandibula had four processes. The mandibular ramus had an angular process on its caudal rim, which extended dorsolaterally. The dorsal free end of the mandibular ramus possessed a coronoid process. In the back, there were two other processes, situated medially and laterally. The medially situated process was referred to as a condylar process, and the laterally situated process was referred to as an alveolar process. The alveolar process detected on the mandibular ramus has not been reported in any rodent species, other than those of the family Spalacidae. Blind mole rats can be a real eye‐opener for evolutionary science. The burrowing rodents are key to answering a controversial question about how new species arise.