Gross Anatomical Features of the Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT) of Blue and Yellow Macaws (Ara ararauna) – Oral Cavity and Pharynx

Morphological studies of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of blue and yellow macaws (Ara ararauna) are scarce. Therefore, this study aims to describe the macaw's oropharyngeal cavity in order to supply the deficiency of anatomical data and as part of a broad study of the GIT of these birds. Two male and one female adult blue and yellow macaws were anatomically dissected to expose the oropharynx. The macaw oropharynx was ‘V‐shaped’ and flattened laterally being composed of maxillary and mandibular rhamphotheca of the beak. The tongue, lingual frenulum and laryngeal mound (containing ‘spindle‐shaped’ glottis and prominent mucosal papillae) formed the floor of the oropharynx. The roof revealed two distinct regions separated by a ‘step‐like depression’, whereas in the floor, the mandibular rhamphotheca was separated from the oral cavity mucosa by a large vestibulum enclosing the lingual frenulum. The palate was hard without any signs of rugae nor palatine raphe. A smooth ridge extended caudally from the choana to the common opening of the Eustachian tubes. This study, in addition to confirming the basic features of the oropharynx previously described for birds in general, provided new, unreported morphological data, some of which may be important when studying nutrition and health of these birds.     

No effect of short‐term exposure to high‐fibre diets on the gastrointestinal morphology of layer hens (Gallus gallus domesticus): body reserves are used to manage energy deficits in favour of phenotypic plasticity

Summary Using layer hens, Gallus gallus domesticus, we compared the digestive capabilities of birds on a low‐fibre diet (LF, 8.49% neutral detergent fibre; NDF), with those fed a high‐fibre diet balanced for energy and protein to match the LF diet (high fibre balanced, HFB; NDF = 15.61%) and those fed a high fibre unbalanced (HFU) diet (NDF = 16.68%). The HFU diet had the lowest apparent dry matter (DM) metabolisability at 58.14 ± 6.46%, followed by HFB, 65.87 ± 3.50 and the LF diet, 70.49 ± 7.07%. Despite significant differences between apparent DM metabolisabilities of LF and HFU diets, no morphometric changes in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of layer hens were observed (including crop, gizzard, proventriculus, liver, large intestine, paired caeca and small intestine). Conversely, body mass losses were recorded for animals on HFU diet, while those on the LF and HFB diets actually gained body mass over the 14‐day trials. We suggest that the body mass losses seen in the animals fed HFU diets were attributed to losses in adipose tissue, but this was not quantified. Assuming body mass losses were mainly in adipose tissue, we propose that adipose may act to buffer environmental challenges like shortfalls in nutrient acquisition when dietary energy requirements are not met. Compared with smaller birds (e.g. quail), the larger body size of the layer hens may offer them a greater safety margin in terms of body energy reserves before changes in the GIT might be needed to redress energy deficits associated with hard‐to‐digest, high‐fibre diets.     

RADIOGRAPHY AND IMAGE-INTENSIFIED FLUOROSCOPY OF BARIUM PASSAGE THROUGH THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT IN SIX HEALTHY AMAZON PARROTS (AMAZONA AESTIVA)

Gastrointestinal contrast studies were performed in six clinically healthy blue-fronted Amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva) using radiography and image-intensified fluoroscopy. During examination, the birds were confined in a perspex cage. The quality of the lateral radiographs was adequate for assessment of the contrast medium-filled gastrointestinal tract. Thirty minutes after administration of 20 mL/kg of a 25% barium sulphate suspension directly in the crop, in all birds the ventriculus was totally outlined by barium. After 60 min, the small intestine was filled in five of six birds. After 180 min, the crop was empty in all birds. The barium-outlined ventriculus had differences in shape on radiographs of individual birds and also between birds. The colon and cloaca had further filling after 120 to 300 min. With image-intensified fluoroscopy, gastrointestinal motility was evaluated. Contractions of the crop were seen, and boluses of contrast medium passing through the esophagus toward the proventriculus were easily identified. Proventricular contractions were rarely noted, but ventriculus motility was present and clearly defined. The ventriculus had a mean of 3.7 contraction cycles/min. In the duodenum and small intestine, rapid antegrade and retrograde peristaltic movements in combination with segmental contractions were seen. In the colon, occasionally very slow peristaltic activity, mainly of segmental nature, was present. During the examinations, no defeacation was recorded. Confinement in a small perspex cage provides an adequate and handy radiological set-up for evaluation of gastrointestinal passage and motility in birds, minimizing the influences of stress and anesthesia.     

Post‐natal Growth of the Gastrointestinal Tract of the Siberian Hamster: Morphometric Analysis

Post‐natal growth of the gastrointestinal tract of the Siberian hamster was studied in newborn and 3‐, 7‐, 14‐, 21‐, 42‐ and 90‐day‐old animals. Morphometric measurements and calculations were carried out: length and internal surface of gastrointestinal tract segments, size (height, width, surface) and density of villi as well as allometric growth rate of the length and internal surface of the segments with respect to the body mass. The fastest growth rate of the gastrointestinal tract segments was noticed during the first 3 days of the post‐natal life. Nevertheless, significant regional differences in their growth rate were found. The increase in the length and internal surface of the large intestine was fastest, while the smallest increase was observed in the oesophagus. All segments of the gastrointestinal tract except oesophagus exhibited a positive allometric relationship to the body mass from birth till final weaning, whereas during the post‐weaning period, the increase was isometric. Thus, at birth, the gastrointestinal tract segments were relatively smaller compared with those observed in adults, but then, the gastrointestinal tract grew faster than the rest of the body and reached its adult proportions just before the transition to solid food. Most probably, reaching the adult structure of the gastrointestinal tract before the final weaning is an essential condition for the proper growth of an organism after the weaning.     

中国秦岭地区红腹锦鸡的冬季食性和消化道

于2002-2003年对陕西省秦岭红腹锦鸡(Chrysolophus pictus)的冬季食性和消化道的形态结构进行了研究.利用标准分类法鉴定了嗉囊中的食物种类.红腹锦鸡冬季为植食性,食物包括农作物和其他种类等至少14种植物.红腹锦鸡消化道由食道、胃、小肠(标准体长的3.4倍)、两个发达的盲肠和较短的直肠组成,具典型的植食性鸟类的特征.肌胃中含有大小不等(直径为0.5-3 mm)的石粒,石粒的平均干重10.4±2.5 g,与肌胃中食糜的重量成正相关(Pearson r=0.747,P<0.01,n=37).红腹锦鸡消化道粘膜呈弱酸性,尤以嗉囊和肌胃粘膜酸性较强.     

Immunohistochemical study on localization of serotonin immunoreactive cells in the gastrointestinal tract of the European catfish (Silurus glanis,L.)

In this study, it was aimed to identify the distribution of serotonin immunoreactive cells within the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of European catfish (Silurus glanis). For this purpose, the tissue samples were taken from the stomach (cardia, fundus and pylorus region) and intestine (anterior, middle and posterior region). They were examined by applying the avidin‐biotin‐immunoperoxidase method. The serotonin containing immunoreactive cells are presented in all regions of the GIT. It was determined to be localized generally in different distribution within the stomachs and intestines of S. glanis. It was found that the most intensive regions of immunoreactive cells were the cardia stomach and posterior of intestine.     

SONOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT OF GRANIVOROUS BIRDS

This article describes the sonographic examination of the normal gastrointestinal tract of granivorous birds. Preliminary tests with dead birds were performed to get an idea of the sonographic echotexture of the avian gastrointestinal tract. Later, clinically healthy seedeaters of different weights were examined sonographically. As equipment a convex microcurved scanner with a particularly small coupling surface and an adjustable frequency from 5.5-7.5 MHz was used. For the investigation of the gastrointestinal tract, six sonographic approaches are described. After a starving time of 18 hours in the granivorous birds and water input, the best sonographic image quality could be obtained. Using this method, the crop, ventriculus, intestines, and cloaca could be demonstrated sonographically; whereas, it was not possible to visualize the normal proventriculus in granivorous birds. In contrast to mammals, the different layers of the wall of the gastrointestinal tract could not be visualized with the equipment used. Motility of individual parts of the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract), however, could be well demonstrated.     

STATIC AND DYNAMIC 18FDG‐PET IN NORMAL HISPANIOLAN AMAZON PARROTS (AMAZONA VENTRALIS)

Positron emission tomography (PET) is often used to stage and monitor human cancer and has recently been used in a similar fashion in veterinary medicine. The most commonly used radiopharmaceutical is 2‐Deoxy‐2‐[¹⁸F]‐Fluoro‐d ‐glucose (¹⁸F‐FDG), which is concentrated and trapped within cells that use glucose as their energy substrate. We characterized the normal distribution of ¹⁸F‐FDG in 10 healthy Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis) by performing whole body PET scans at steady state, 60 min after injection. Significant variability was found in the intestinal activity. Avian species are known to reflux fluid and electrolytes from their cloaca into their colon. To evaluate reflux as the cause of variability in intestinal distribution of ¹⁸F‐FDG, dynamic PET scans were performed on the coelomic cavity of six Hispaniolan Amazon parrots from time 0 to 60 min postinjection of radiotracer. Reflux of radioactive material from the cloaca into the colon occurred in all birds to varying degrees and occurred before 60 min. To evaluate the intestinal tract of clinical avian patients, dynamic scans must be performed starting immediately after injection so that increased radioactivity due to metabolism or hypermetabolic lesions such as cancer can be differentiated from increased radioactivity due to reflux of fluid from the cloaca.     

Distribution and Activity of Fatty Acid Amide Hydralase (FAAH) in the Gastrointestinal Neurons of Mouse

The endocannabinoid anandamide may regulate intestinal motility through activation of CB1 receptors. Anandamide is then inactivated by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), a membrane bound enzyme. Under pathological conditions, inactivation of such enzymatic activity may lead to inhibition of the intestinal motility. Here, preliminary reports on the distribution of Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase (FAAH) immunoreactivity in the mouse gastrointestinal neurons, and the pharmacological effects of N‐arachidonoylserotonin (AA‐5HT), a selective inhibitor of FAAH, are reported. FAAH was revealed by an indirect immunofluorescence. Laminar preparations containing the myenteric or the submucous plexus adhered, were peeled off after the whole gut wall had been stretched out and fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde. They were subsequently incubated with a polyclonal anti‐serum directed against a region near the N‐terminus of the human FAAH and revealed by a FITC‐conjugated goat anti‐rabbit secondary anti‐serum. FAAH‐immunoreactive neurons were observed within the myenteric ganglia throughout the GIT. The positive nerve cells varied in size and density of immunoreactivity. Stomach and large intestine showed the highest neuronal density. AA‐5HT significantly reduced both gastric emptying and gastrointestinal tract transit. Such inhibitory effect was reduced by the C1 receptor antagonist SR141716A. Both morphological and pharmacological results suggest that FAAH may play a critical role in controlling gut anandamide levels.     

Adaptation of light‐bodied chicks to meal feeding: Gastrointestinal tract and pancreatic enzymes

1. Two‐week old male chicks of a light‐bodied strain were either fed ad libitum or given one (1M) or two (2M) 2‐h meals per day. A fourth group was pair‐fed (P1M) the amount of food which had been consumed by the 1M group on the preceding day.

2. Compared with ad libitum‐fed counterparts, a marked increase in the relative weight of the storage organs (crop and gizzard) was observed in the meal‐fed birds. The relative weight of the intestine was not affected by meal feeding but the ileal wall became thinner.

3. After food deprivation for 14 or 22 h, respectively, for the ad libitum and the meal‐fed chicks, the weights of contents in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) segments did not differ between treatments except for those of the gizzard and caecum. Food restoration resulted in an increase in the contents of the GIT of meal‐fed chicks. The increments in the crop and gizzard contents were related to the severity of food restriction. The contents of the intestinal segments were quite similar in all treatments.

4. The activities of the digestive enzymes in the pancreas, expressed as units/g pancreas or units/kg body weight, were not significantly affected by feeding regime. In the small intestine of the meal‐fed birds, marked increases in specific (units/g content) and relative (units/kg body weight) activities were observed of amylase and chymo‐trypsin when compared with their ad libitum‐fed counterparts. The effect of meal feeding on trypsin activities was less pronounced.     

Pharmacokinetics of marbofloxacin in blue and gold macaws (Ara ararauna)

OBJECTIVE: To determine the pharmacokinetics of marbofloxacin after single IV and orally administered doses in blue and gold macaws. ANIMALS: 10 healthy blue and gold macaws. PROCEDURES: In a crossover study, marbofloxacin (2.5 mg/kg) was administered orally (via crop gavage) to 5 birds and IV to 5 birds. Blood samples were obtained at 0, 0.5, 1, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours after marbofloxacin administration. After a 4-week washout period, the study was repeated, with the first 5 birds receiving the dose IV and the second 5 birds receiving the dose orally. Serum marbofloxacin concentrations were quantitated by use of a validated liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry assay. RESULTS: After oral administration, mean +/- SD area under the curve was 7.94 +/- 2.08 microg.h/mL, maximum plasma concentration was 1.08 +/- 0.316 microg/mL, and bioavailability was 90.0 +/- 31%. After IV administration of marbofloxacin, the apparent volume of distribution was 1.3 +/- 0.32 L/kg, plasma clearance was 0.29 +/- 0.078 L/h/kg, area under the curve was 9.41 +/- 2.84 microg.h/mL, and the harmonic mean terminal half-life was 4.3 hours. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Single IV and orally administered doses of marbofloxacin were well tolerated by blue and gold macaws. The orally administered dose was well absorbed. Administration of marbofloxacin at a dosage of 2.5 mg/kg, PO, every 24 hours may be appropriate to control bacterial infections susceptible to marbofloxacin in this species.     

Dietary divercin modifies gastrointestinal microbiota and improves growth performance in broiler chickens

1. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of dietary administration of a divercin AS7 liquid preparation on broiler chicken performance, nutrient digestibility, counts of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and coliform bacteria, as well as on the microbial activity in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) as expressed by digesta pH and concentrations of short-chain fatty acids and lactic acid. 2. A total of 450 1-d-old male Ross 308 chickens were randomly distributed to three dietary treatments, with 15 pens per treatment and 10 birds per pen. The dietary treatments consisted of a positive control (PC) supplemented with 60 mg/kg salinomycin, a negative control (NC) without any additives, and the divercin (DIV) supplemented diet containing 0 x 2 mL/kg of the liquid divercin AS7 preparation. 3. The dietary divercin AS7 supplementation significantly increased body weight gain at 35 d compared to the NC group. Moreover, the pH of crop contents was higher and that of caecal contents lower in birds fed on the divercin supplemented diets. 4. Significantly lower counts of LAB were observed in the crops and caeca of the birds treated with divercin. Further, the divercin supplementation decreased lactic and succinic acid concentrations in the crop and ileum. 5. The present study demonstrates that the use of divercin supplemented diets can influence composition and activity of the microbiota in the broiler chicken GIT even in the lower parts that should otherwise not be targeted due to the peptide structure of the bacteriocin.     

Indirect evidence for microbiota reduction through dietary mannanoligosaccharides in the pigeon, an avian species without functional caeca

A feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the effects of mannanoligosaccharides (MOS) on nutrient digestibility, intestinal pH, gut morphology and faecal bacteriology of pigeons, as model for birds without functional caeca. Sixteen adult pigeons (Columba livia domestica) were randomly allotted to either an extruded pellet diet with or without 0.4% MOS. After an adaptation period of 24 days, excreta were collected during 4 days. Apparent nutrient digestibility coefficients were determined using total collection method. Further, excreta pH was measured and percentage of uric acid determined. Fresh excreta were cultured for measurement of colony‐forming units for Escherichia coli. At the end, the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) was excised and pH measurements performed on the separate GIT sections. Finally, pancreas, liver, gizzard and abdominal fat pad were weighed, and standardised segments of duodenum and jejunum were removed for microscopic measurement of crypt depth, villus height and muscularis thickness. Feed intake and water intake were similar between control diet and MOS diet. Intestinal pH was unaffected by MOS supplementation; however, excreta pH was significantly lower in pigeons on the MOS diet. Although nutrient digestibility was similar between treatments, uric acid content of excreta was significantly higher in the MOS group in relation to the control group. Further, duodenal crypt depth, villus height and muscularis thickness, as well as jejunal muscularis thickness were all significantly reduced by MOS supplementation. No effect of MOS supplementation was seen on the counts of E. coli. Furthermore, despite marked differences on both GIT morphology and uric acid content of excreta, apparent digestibility coefficients, and organ weights, were similar between treatments. It is suggested that the MOS‐induced changes on gut morphology and the reduced excreta pH reflect a reduced bacterial challenge in the intestine of pigeons. Supplementation of MOS, therefore, has potential as prebiotic strategy in birds without functional caeca.     

Effect of glucocorticoids on gastrointestinal emptying in young broilers

1. The rates of gastrointestinal (GI) emptying of 8- and 15-d-old chickens treated with 17-hydroxycorticosterone was measured using 14C-polyethylene glycol-4000. 2. The rate of progression of intraluminal contents along the GI tract was decreased by 17-hydroxycorticosterone in both 8- and 15-d-old chickens. Glucocorticoid treatment only delayed the rate of progression of intraluminal contents along the large intestine of the older birds. 3. Delayed transit of intraluminal contents could be explained by a precocious maturation of chick GI tract, induced by glucocorticoids. Loss of responsiveness to glucocorticoids occurs during the second week after hatching, except in the large intestine.     

A between‐experiment analysis of relationships linking dietary protein intake and post‐weaning diarrhea in weanling pigs under conditions of experimental infection with an enterotoxigenic strain of Escherichia coli

Numerous experiments have demonstrated that feeding a lower protein diet decreases protein fermentation in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and reduces the incidence of post‐weaning diarrhea (PWD). However, there is a lack of holistic evidence underpinning the relationship between feeding a lower protein diet and PWD in relation to physiological responses and protein fermentation in the GIT. The scope of this article, therefore, will: (i) focus on the impact of dietary protein levels on selected indices of GIT health in weaned pigs without and with experimental infection with an enterotoxigenic strain of Escherichia coli; and (ii) attempt to conduct regression analysis to examine the relationships between dietary‐origin protein intake, nitrogen fermentation indices, fecal consistency and the incidence of PWD. We used datasets generated from a series of four intensive experiments in weaned pigs. The collective results derived from these datasets indicate that restriction of daily protein intake to less than 60 g through feeding a lower protein diet for as little as 7 days after weaning reduced the incidence of PWD commensurate with a reduction in protein fermentation indices.     

Psittacine proventricular dilatation syndrome in an umbrella cockatoo

Psittacine proventricular dilatation syndrome (macaw wasting disease) is a fatal disease of the gastrointestinal tract and, sometimes, the CNS. The disease most often affects macaws and is thought to be of viral origin. An Umbrella cockatoo was referred with signs of neurologic dysfunction. Other unusual findings included flaccid crop, distended duodenum, and acute weight loss. Because treatment has not been reported to be effective, the affected cockatoo was euthanatized to limit spread of the disease.     

Anatomía del Desarrollo del Tracto Digestivo y Forma Corporal Externa Durante el Período Embrionario en el Caprino (Copra hircus)

Anatomy of the digestive tract and external body development during the embryonic stages of the caprine (Copra, bircus) The purpose of this work has been to establish the pattern of prenatal growth and normal development of the digestive tract and annex glands during goat embryonic stages. 21 embryos with ages ranging from 14 to 34 days (1.69 to 5.90 cm CR) as determined by registering the mating time, were obtained by cesarea. This material was histologically processed to obtain complete serial sections of the stomatodaeum, foregut, midgut, hindgut and cloaca. In this work, it is chronologically described the morphogenesis and histogenesis of the mouth, hypophysis, pharynx and its derivatives, stomach, intestine, liver, pancreas and cloaca. The results obtained establish chronological comparisons with the development of the lamb and gives information on the unitary origin of the gastric compartments in ruminants.     

Pharmacokinetics of azithromycin in the blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna) after intravenous and oral administration.

Azithromycin is classified as an azalide, a subclass of macrolide antimicrobials with a broad spectrum of activity in vitro against many potential bacterial pathogens including spirochetes, anaerobes, and Chlamydia trachomatis. Because of limited data on the use of azithromycin in avian medicine, this study was designed to determine the pharmacokinetics of azithromycin in blue and gold macaws (Ara ararauna), a species commonly seen in clinical practice. Azithromycin (10 mg/kg) was administered via crop lavage to five birds and intravenously to five birds, and blood samples were obtained at 0, 0.5, 1, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hr post-azithromycin administration. Following a 4-wk washout period, the study was repeated with a complete crossover study performed. Concentration of azithromycin in plasma samples was quantified using a validated liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry assay. Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined using noncompartmental analysis. Based on the pharmacokinetic data generated from this study, a starting dose of azithromycin at 10 mg/kg p.o. every 48 hr for susceptible bacterial infections in blue and gold macaws is recommended.     

Distribution and Characterisation of Goblet Cells in the Large Intestine of Ostriches during the Pre‐ and Post‐Hatch Period

The role of goblet cell secretion, containing mucopolysaccharides, in the formation of a protective barrier of intestinal mucosa and transportation of the intestinal content has been described quite extensively. However, information on the quality composition of mucopolysaccharides and its changes in the intestinal tract of ostrich chicks, especially in the large intestinal segments, is unavailable. In the current study, ostrich embryos/chicks (n = 6/36) of both sexes were used shortly before hatching and during the first months of the post‐hatch period. Tissues for histology were taken from the large intestine: the medium segments of the caecum, proximal and distal parts of colon. By using histochemical reactions, the differentiation of goblet cells as well as chemical composition of mucopolysaccharides was carried out. The cells contained acid (AB+), neutral (PAS+) and mixed (AB/PAS+) mucopolysaccharides. The number of goblet cells in the large intestine per unit area of mucosa increased towards the cloaca, and it was the highest in the distal part of the colon. The qualitative goblet cell composition in different large intestinal parts was different in all ages. In the caecum, goblet cells containing acid and mixed mucopolysaccharides dominate post‐hatch, whereas in the colon, goblet cells containing acid mucopolysaccharides predominated. The most rapid changes in the qualitative goblet cell composition occur during the first week post‐hatch when in all the intestinal segments the proportion of cells containing acid mucopolysaccharides continuously increased.     

GAL‐ and VIP‐Immunoreactive Nerve Structures in the Ileum and Large Intestine of Pigs with Dysentery

The morphology, neurochemistry and function of intramural nerve structures in the mammalian gastrointestinal tract are relatively well known, but in normal, healthy individuals. The present study was aimed at investigating the chemical coding of nerve structures in the wall of the ileum and large intestine in normal pigs (n = 3) and in pigs undergoing dysentery (n = 6). Dysentery was evoked by artificial infection of the clinically healthy animals per os with Brachyspira hyodysenteriae. All the animals were deeply anaesthetized and transcardially perfused with 4% paraformaldehyde. The cryostat sections of the intestines were processed for double‐labelling immunohistochemistry using antisera against PGP 9.5, GAL and VIP. In the intramural plexuses of the control pigs, the percentage of GAL‐immunoreactive (GAL‐IR) perykarya varied from 11% (descending colon) to 19% (centrifugal turns of the ascending colon) whereas in the dysenteric pigs, it was distinctly higher, reaching from 28% (ileum) up to 48% (cecum). In the control animals, the percentage of VIP‐IR neuronal somata varied from 3% (descending colon) to 19% (ileum). In dysenteric pigs, it was from 6% (descending colon) up to 28% (cecum). In the muscular coat (MC) and mucous membrane (MM) of the normal intestine, very numerous GAL‐ and VIP‐IR nerve fibres were observed. The nerve fibres in the myenteric plexus (MP) were even more numerous than those in the muscular coat while in the outer (OSP) and inner (ISP) submucous plexuses, they were less abundant. In the dysenteric pigs, the nerve fibres found in MC, MP and OSP were less numerous, whereas those observed in ISP and MM were more abundant than those in the control animals. The present results suggest that GAL and VIP are involved in the regulation of inflammatory processes developing in the porcine gastrointestinal tract during dysentery.