Long-term influence of fire and harvesting on boreal forest age structure and forest composition in eastern Québec

In boreal forests, historical variations in the area disturbed by natural disturbances or harvesting have rarely been compared. We measured temporal and spatial variations in areas affected by severe fires and clearcutting throughout the 20th century in a 57, 332 km² section of the eastern Canadian boreal forest. We examined the effects of these disturbances on spatio-temporal variations in the abundance of forests >60 years. Natural variability for the abundance of forests >60 years was estimated from simulations of natural disturbance regimes. We also measured compositional and structural differences between three categories of stands originating from relatively recent disturbances (∼50 years; clearcutting, fires, and clearcutting followed by fires), and one category of stands that were undisturbed for at least 200 years. At the regional level, we observed that forests >60 years gradually became scarcer throughout the 20th century due to a gradual expansion of harvested areas, an effect most pronounced in the southern part of the region, where mature and old forest abundance was clearly outside the range of natural variability at the end of the studied period. At the stand level, forest composition and structure differed between stand-origin categories: clearcutting-origin stands contained more balsam fir (Abies balsamea), fire-origin stands more black spruce (Picea mariana), and fire/clearcutting-origin stands more hardwoods (Betula papyrifera and Populus tremuloides). Overall, we estimate that strict forest management targets based on natural disturbance regimes will be difficult to achieve in eastern North-American boreal forests, most notably because contemporary disturbance rates, including both clearcutting and fire, have gradually become higher than the fire rates observed during the preindustrial period.     

Simulating conversion of even-aged Norway spruce into uneven-aged mixed forest: effects of different scenarios on production,economy and heterogeneity

European Journal of Forest Research - Despite a general lack of knowledge on the effects of different strategies, conversion of even-aged stands to uneven-aged forest is ongoing across Europe....     

Long-term species and structural changes after cleaning young even-aged northern hardwoods in New Hampshire,USA

The effects of four cleaning practices (including a control) on species composition and structural characteristics were studied over a 31-year period following treatment of an even-aged 25-year-old northern-hardwood stand that originated after complete clearcutting in 1933–1935. The treatments consisted of: a heavy and a light crop tree cleaning; a drastic species-cleaning treatment that removed nearly all pin cherry (Prunus pensylvanica L.f.), aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx. and grandidentata Michx.), striped maple (Acer pensylvanicum L.), and red maple (Acer rubrum L.) sprout clumps followed by a crop-tree cleaning; and an uncut control. There were no significant differences among treatments in species and structural characteristics in the 56-year-old stand at the end of the study period, except for the presence of a moderate aspen component in the light cleaning and the control. Although previous research shows that cleaning treatments in young northern hardwoods may have silvicultural and economic benefits, the impact of such treatments on long-term stand development is relatively minor.     

Canopy composition as a measure to identify patterns of nutrient input in a mixed European beech and Norway spruce forest in central Europe

The influence of canopy composition on litterfall and throughfall was investigated in a mixed spruce beech forest in central Germany. We hypothesised that different parts of the mixed canopy created distinct patterns of element inputs via litterfall and throughfall. The investigation was carried out in two plots, representing the most contrasting cases of mixed forests: a stand greatly dominated by spruce (SDP) and a stand greatly dominated by beech (BDP). The canopies of the two plots were classified in four categories: pure beech, pure spruce, mixed canopy and gap. Amounts of throughfall water were lower and major element fluxes were higher under spruce than under beech in both plots, indicating that the nutrient inputs under the canopies of individual trees are driven by species-specific properties of the canopies and are quite independent of the degree of admixture. With the exception of K⁺, mixed canopies showed intermediate element inputs via throughfall, compared with pure canopy classes. The K⁺ input was significantly greater under mixed canopies, and these differences were more pronounced in the SDP than in the BDP. Results suggest that individual spruce trees in the BDP induce greater spatial heterogeneity of throughfall input than individual beech trees in the SDP. Nutrient inputs via foliar litterfall were similar among the different canopy classes, but the Mg input was lower under spruce canopy. This effect was balanced by higher Mg input via spruce throughfall. In our study, throughfall was the main source of heterogeneity in nutrient inputs, while foliar litterfall had a homogenising effect.     

森林采伐与作业迹地森林景观

本文着重从森林景观角度出发,探讨了不同森林采伐模式对作业迹地森林景观的影响。在实地调查的基础上。采用定性定量相结合的方法对作业地的森林景观进行了评价。提出了一套评价标准。初步研究结果表明,楔形采伐为一种既维持生态景观又兼顾木材生产的采伐方式,且对森林景观具有较积极的影响。     

Effect of gap size on mid-rotation stand structure and species composition in a naturally regenerated mixed broadleaf forest

This paper is an assessment of the effect of gap size on stand structure and species composition 48 years following treatment in a mixed broadleaf upland forest. Established in 1960, the study tests three circular openings, 15.2 m (0.02 ha), 45.7 m (0.16 ha), and 76.2 m (0.46 ha). Forty-eight years following treatment (2008) basal area, top height, and quadratic mean diameter were significantly lower in 15.2 m openings. Maple (Acer spp.) species had the highest mean importance value across treatments (0.40). Trends suggest that species composition of dominant and codominant trees among opening sizes may have been influenced by shade tolerance adaptations of the species groups present. Whereas 15.2 m openings were dominated by shade tolerant maple species, 45.7 and 76.2 m openings produced a mixture of commercial species including shade intolerant species such as yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.), trees of intermediate shade tolerance like oak (Quercus spp.), and shade tolerant maple. Data further suggest the density of overstory oak was highest in the intermediate opening size (45.7 m), while yellow-poplar increased in the larger opening sizes. Evaluation of species shifts between 1981 and 2008 showed that relative basal area of maple increased across all treatments. Relative basal areas from 45.7 to 76.2 m openings suggest declines in yellow-poplar and other non-commercial species were balanced by increases in oak and maple.     

Harvesting intensity affects forest structure and composition in an upland Amazonian forest

Forest structure and floristic composition were studied in a series of 0.5 ha natural forest plots at four sites near Porto Trombetas in Pará State, Brazil, 11–12 years after being subjected to differing levels of above-ground biomass harvest and removal. In addition to undisturbed control plots, experimental treatments included: removal of most trees ≥45 cm DBH (low intensity harvest); removal of trees <20 and ≥60 cm DBH (moderate intensity harvest); clear-cutting (100% above-ground biomass removal). Post-harvest basal area growth generally increased with harvest intensity, and total basal areas for trees ≥5 cm DBH were, at the time of our study, 60% (in the clear-cut) to about 80% of those in the control plots. Biomass harvests stimulated recruitment and growth of residual trees, particularly in the smaller diameter classes, but had little effect on species richness for small trees, seedlings, vine, herbs, and grasses. Species richness for trees ≥15 cm DBH was greater in the control and low-intensity (74–75 species) than in the moderate intensity (47 species) and clear-cut (26 species) treatment plots. While the tree flora within all harvest treatments was broadly similar to the undisturbed (control) plots and included similar numbers of species of the major plant families typical of the surrounding forests, the more intensive harvest treatments, especially the clear-cut, were dominated by a higher proportion of short-lived, early successional tree species.     

Spatial patterns in mixed coniferous even-aged,uneven-aged and conversion stands

Different methodological approaches from the field of spatial statistics, the index of cluster size (ICS) and quadrat methods such as the two-term and three-term local quadrat variance (TTLQV and 3TLQV) and the new local variance (NLV) were tested to find a simple spatial measure to classify mixed coniferous uneven-aged, even-aged and conversion stands in the central Black Forest area of Germany. Altogether six stands were analysed with regularly distributed sample plots of 0.25 ha (50×50 m), each subdivided into 25 quadrats of 10×10 m. In each of the quadrats, diameter at breast height (dbh) for trees of the overstory (dbh>7 cm) was assessed and classified into three diameter classes. Height measurements were used to develop specific stand height curves for each stand and to calculate the standing volume per tree and per quadrat. The even-aged stands showed a regular distribution of the standing volume, while the conversion and uneven-aged stands were more clustered. This was detected using ICS, which proved to be a simple but very efficient measure for stand structure. The ICS also showed a highly random distribution of small and medium trees and a regular distribution of large trees of the overstory in the uneven-aged stand. Large and medium trees of one even-aged stand were also regularly distributed while conversion stands showed a regular, random or slightly clustered distribution of these trees. The more uneven the ages in the stands were, the larger were the phases detected by the NLV. The findings of the ICS were generally supported by the TTLQV and 3TLQV. The more uneven the ages in a stand were, the less clustered were the trees of different sizes of the understory. Clustering also decreased with increasing height of understory trees. The patterns detected in the investigated stands were related to the effect of different management regimes. Implications for the management of conversions stands based on the findings of the study are given.     

Adaptation of a modelling strategy to predict the NPP of even-aged forest stands

The assessment of net forest production is important for both scientific and practical purposes. The current paper presents the application of a recently developed strategy to estimate the net primary productivity of an even-aged Mediterranean pine forest (Natural Park of San Rossore, Central Italy). The strategy is based on the use of two models, C-Fix and BIOME-BGC, whose outputs are combined with forest volume data in order to describe the actual status of the ecosystems examined. The accuracy of the simulation is tested against measurements of current annual increment (CAI) derived from a recent forest inventory of the Park. The results of this test indicate that the methodology must be modified to account for the even-aged nature of the study stands. The modification is performed by the analysis of dendrochronological and tree density data, which characterize the temporal volume and CAI evolution of representative forest stands. The modified methodology is capable of taking into account the effect of stand ageing and yielding nearly unbiased estimates of forest CAI.     

Windthrow and salvage logging in an old-growth hemlock-northern hardwoods forest

Although the initial response to salvage (also known as, post-disturbance or sanitary) logging is known to vary among system components, little is known about longer term forest recovery. We examine forest overstory, understory, soil, and microtopographic response 25 years after a 1977 severe wind disturbance on the Flambeau River State Forest in Wisconsin, USA, a portion of which was salvage logged. Within this former old-growth hemlock-northern hardwoods forest, tree dominance has shifted from Eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) to broad-leaf deciduous species (Ulmus americana, Acer saccharum, Tilia americana, Populus tremuloides, and Betula alleghaniensis) in both the salvaged and unsalvaged areas. While the biological legacies of pre-disturbance seedlings, saplings, and mature trees were initially more abundant in the unsalvaged area, regeneration through root suckers and stump sprouts was common in both areas. After 25 years, tree basal area, sapling density, shrub layer density, and seedling cover had converged between unsalvaged and salvaged areas. In contrast, understory herb communities differed between salvaged and unsalvaged forest, with salvaged forest containing significantly higher understory herb richness and cover, and greater dominance of species benefiting from disturbance, especially Solidago species. Soil bulk density, pH, organic carbon content, and organic nitrogen content were also significantly higher in the salvaged area. The structural legacy of tip-up microtopography remains more pronounced in the unsalvaged area, with significantly taller tip-up mounds and deeper pits. Mosses and some forest herbs, including Athyrium filix-femina and Hydrophyllum virginianum, showed strong positive responses to this tip-up microrelief, highlighting the importance of these structural legacies for understory biodiversity. In sum, although the pathways of recovery differed, this forest appeared to be as resilient to the compound disturbances of windthrow plus salvage logging as to wind disturbance alone, by most vegetative measures.     

Pattern of parenchyma and canal resin composition in softwoods and hardwoods

There is a general pattern of resin chemistry for parenchyma cells and secretory tissue. In sapwood the parenchyma resin is composed of fats, steryl esters, and occasionally waxes. Secretory tissue (most often resin canals) contains terpenes, terpenoids, and polyisoprenes. Other types of canal resin occur in a few hardwood families. The pattern is valid for softwoods and hardwoods. It has been defined from a comparison of available information on wood chemistry, wood anatomy, and the chemistry of oleoresin exudates from trees. This is a short overview with the most important references of two detailed reports.     

Experimental harvesting of the non-timber forest product Ischnosiphon polyphyllus in central Amazonia

The harvesting of non-timber forest products has been proposed as an alternative to timber harvesting that can increase rural income while having a reduced impact on forest structure. However, surprisingly little is known about the biological consequences of harvesting these products. We conducted a 3-year experiment in which we simulated the stem harvesting of the Amazonian plant Ischnosiphon polyphyllus, which is used by traditional and indigenous populations in the Amazon for the construction of baskets, mats, and other handicrafts used in manioc cultivation. We found that plant mortality is limited in all except the most extreme harvesting treatments. However, we also found that plants recuperate extremely slowly from experimental harvesting. These results suggest that current harvesting strategies may not be conservative enough to ensure long-term population survival.     

Nutrient exports under different harvesting regimes in fast-growing forest plantations in southern Europe

In the humid and temperate areas of southern Europe, forest plantations are dominated by fast-growing species (Eucalyptus globulus, Pinus radiata and Pinus pinaster), which are grown on acidic soils with low reserves of available nutrients. In this study the amounts of nutrients exported from the plantations under different regimes and intensities of harvesting were evaluated and, on the basis of the results obtained, silvicultural management methods aimed at improving the nutritional status of the plantations were proposed. We found high ratios between nutrients exported by harvesting and those available in soil stores, indicating limitation for P, Ca and Mg over the long term, which is consistent with frequently found deficiencies of these nutrients. Current harvesting practices (removal of stem wood and bark) result in high rates of export of P, K, Ca and Mg, especially in eucalypt plantations, because of the high productivity and low nutrient efficiency of this species. Comparison of the amounts of nutrients exported by harvesting, with natural inputs (rainfall and weathering) and outputs (stream water), suggests that intensive exploitation of these plantations may result in negative budgets, especially if whole tree harvesting is carried out. The application of fertilizers containing P, Ca and Mg should be encouraged in all cases to favour the return of nutrients, especially where logging residues are extracted. The cost of harvesting in terms of nutrients can also be reduced by careful selection of the tree species planted and of the tree fractions harvested and by reducing the intensity of harvesting.     

Acidity in four coniferous forest soils after different harvesting regimes of logging slash

The soil acidity of four coniferous sites, two in S Sweden and two in N Sweden, were studied 7–9 years after clear‐felling. Each site had three different slash treatments; (a) all slash harvested, (b) only needles remaining, and (c) all slash remaining. Our results verify that harvesting of slash after clear‐cutting means an acidification of the organic horizon in acid forest soils. On plots subjected to full slash harvest the pH‐value of the forest floor was 0.2–0.4 units lower than that of slash‐covered ones, and at three of the four study sites the exchangeable acidity was significantly higher on the slash‐cleared plots. Plots with only needles remaining were generally intermediate in acidity. The change in exchangeable acidity corresponded to approximately 10% of the theoretically estimated proton load caused by slash harvesting. The rate of proton flux associated with whole‐tree harvesting varied between 7–65 meq m^‐3 yr^‐1, which roughly corresponds to the amounts deposited in precipitation. Harvesting of stems accounted for about one third and needles for one third of the proton load.     

Landscape-level effects of forest management on faunal diversity in bottomland hardwoods

Forest management activities potentially influence ecosystems at many spatial scales. For most forest systems, influences at the stand level have been most intensively studied and are best understood. Management impacts at the larger, landscape scale are poorly understood and many hypotheses regarding landscape-level effects remain untested. This lack of knowledge is particularly acute in bottomland hardwood forest (BLH) ecosystems. Most hypotheses regarding landscape-level impacts were derived from theories about island biogeography and metapopulations. Thus, species presence and productivity sometimes are viewed as functions of patch characteristics such as size, shape, amount of edge, degree of isolation from larger, similar habitats, time since isolation, and dispersal, immigration, and extinction rates. Recommendations for mitigating fragmentation effects often include maintenance of reserves, increasing patch size, reducing edges, and enhancing connectivity through the use of corridors. While many of these theories are intuitively sound, there are few data to demonstrate their effectiveness in landscapes dominated by managed forests, including BLH forests. We suggest that high priority be given to using adaptive management to simultaneously test hypotheses about how biotic communities function in managed, BLH landscapes. Such information would help managers understand the consequences of their activities, provide them with more flexibility, and improve their ability to protect biological diversity while also meeting society's needs for forest resources.     

Individual-scale responses of five dominant tree species to single-tree selection harvesting in a mixed forest in Hokkaido, northern Japan

We investigated the individual-scale responses of five dominant species (Abies sachalinensis, Acer mono, Tilia japonica, Quercus crispula, and Betula ermanii) to single-tree selection harvesting in a conifer–broadleaved mixed forest in Hokkaido, northern Japan. Using data from stems with a diameter at breast height of ≥12.5 cm, collected during 20 years of monitoring a 6.7-ha stand, we analyzed the effects of harvesting in the neighborhood on tree recruitment and the growth (diameter class transition) and mortality of the residual trees. The effects of harvesting varied considerably among tree sizes and species. Harvesting improved the recruitment of A. mono and B. ermanii, and moderated the negative effect of the initial basal area of the surrounding canopy trees on the recruitment of Q. crispula. Conversely, harvesting limited the recruitment of A. sachalinensis by offsetting the positive effect of the initial basal area of the surrounding canopy trees. The growth of A. sachalinensis and Q. crispula decreased with the initial basal area of the surrounding canopy trees. Harvesting in the neighborhood resulted in an improvement in the growth of the trees of these species only in the smaller size classes. With increasing local harvesting intensity, the mortality of smaller A. sachalinensis trees decreased, whereas the mortality of larger trees increased. These results suggest that differences in the local harvesting intensity, spatial patterns of harvesting, and initial stand structures influence the stand-scale dynamics in response to partial harvesting in the mixed forests of this region.     

Changes in forest structure of a mixed conifer forest, southwestern Colorado, USA

We selected a warm/dry mixed conifer forest (ponderosa pine, white fir, Douglas-fir, and aspen) in southwestern Colorado to reconstruct historical conditions of fire regime and forest structure in preparation for an experiment in ecological restoration. Although mixed conifer forests are of high ecological and social value in the Southwest, they have been less studied than ponderosa pine forests. Fire-scar analysis on a 150-ha area showed recurring fires at mean intervals of 24 years (all fires with minimum of 2 sample trees scarred) to 32 years (fire scarring 25% or more of sample trees) from the 16th century until the abrupt cessation of fire after 1868, concurrent with European settlement. There was no evidence in age or species-specific data of severe burning at the scale of the study blocks (approximately 200 ha). The forest remained unharvested throughout most of the 20th century, until a cut in the early 1990s removed approximately equal basal areas of ponderosa pine and white fir. Forest structure had already changed substantially, however. Total basal area increased from an average of 11 m² ha⁻¹ in 1870 to 27 m² ha⁻¹ in 2003, despite harvesting of at least 8.4 m² ha⁻¹. Ponderosa pine declined from representing nearly two-thirds of basal area in 1870 to one-third in 2003. The other species increased dramatically, especially white fir, which went from 12% to 35% of basal area and dominated stand density with an average of 392 trees ha⁻¹. Total tree density increased from 142 trees ha⁻¹ in 1870 to 677 trees ha⁻¹ in 2003. The ecological changes that occurred here since the 19th century have been in exactly the opposite direction considering the warm, fire-favoring climate expected in the 21st century. If warm/dry mixed conifer forests of southern Colorado are to have a reasonable chance for persistence under the future climate regime, restoring conditions more similar to the frequently burned, open forests of the past is likely to be a useful starting point.     

Stand structure and composition of a 60-year-old larch (Larix kaempferi) plantation with retained hardwoods

Tree retention is understood as a key practice in creating complexity, leading to heterogeneity in resources and habitats in managed stands. In this article, we clarify the long-term effects of tree retention on stand structure and tree-species composition in a 60-year-old Larix kaempferi plantation in central Japan. In our study plot (1.5 ha) there were 18 stems/ha of retained trees (determined by tree-ring analysis), mostly Quercus crispula. We conducted spatial analyses and tested the hypothesis that tree abundance, size structure, and species composition and diversity change with distance from the retained trees. Near the retained trees, L. kaempferi showed a reduction of 40%–60% in basal area, due presumably to the shading effect. In contrast, the nearby area showed greater species diversity in the canopy layer. The retained trees created patches of different species composition in the understory. The spatial gradient of shade and colonization opportunity provided by retained trees greatly affect the distribution of the colonized species, according to their shade tolerance and seed-dispersal ability, which resulted in the stand structure with a heterogeneous shrub-layer vegetation. Retention proved particularly important for the enhancement and long-term maintenance of structural and compositional complexity in L. kaempferi plantations.     

The influence of cutting cycle and stocking level on the structure and composition of managed old-growth northern hardwoods

Forest management approaches are increasingly being focused on restoring or retaining structurally complex old forest conditions. Evaluations of the long-term impacts of different management regimes on the maintenance and restoration of these conditions are critical for informing and refining current management approaches. To this end, we examined the long-term effects of differing intensities of single-tree selection harvest on stand structural attributes within northern hardwood forests in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, USA. Stands in this study were classified as old growth at the onset of the experiment and were repeatedly treated and maintained at three residual stocking levels (11.5, 16.1, and 20.7 m² ha⁻¹ in trees greater than 24 cm DBH) with three different cutting cycle lengths (5, 10, and 15 years) over a 57-year period. Conditions within an adjacent, unmanaged old-growth system were used as a benchmark for comparing stand structural attributes, including abundance of downed woody debris (DWD), regeneration, and large diameter trees.     

和龙林业局森林组成结构分析

利用2012年和龙林业局森林资源规划设计调查样地数据,从龄组结构、树种结构和径阶组结构进行统计分析,结果表明:全局以中龄林、近熟林为主;各龄组株数随径阶增大而递减,株数集中在小径阶组和中径阶组;红松、云杉等珍贵针叶树种和水曲柳、胡桃楸、黄檗、怀槐等珍贵阔叶树种资源偏少。针对林分具有异龄、复层林结构、珍贵树种少、林分株数密集的特点提出了经营建议。