The Effect of Different Levels of Beet Cyst Nematodes (Heterodera schachtii) and Beet Necrotic Yellow Vein Virus (BNYVV) on Single and Double Resistant Sugar Beet Cultivars

Beet cyst nematode-resistant cultivars, which were introduced recently, originated from the homozygous inbred line B883. This translocation product was unstable and the transmission of resistance when crossed with a susceptible cultivar did not exceed 94%. Tests with the resistant cultivars in climate cabinets showed a wide variety of resistance against Heterodera schachtii and beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV), expressed as average numbers of infective units per plant and percentages of resistant plants. In a series of field trials at different levels of infection of H. schachtii, their multiplication rates on all resistant cultivars depended on the initial density, which was caused by the presence of small numbers of susceptible plants. Since tolerance to wilting was also incorporated in B883, reasonable yields were obtained in the presence of H. schachtii. However, at increasing initial densities of H. schachtii, yields decreased considerably, since penetrating juveniles cause a hypersensitivity reaction in resistant plants. Based upon the results of three series of field trials, it was concluded that resistant cultivars should preferably be applied at population densities between 500 and 2000 eggs and juveniles of H. schachtii per 100ml of soil. Cultivars with double resistance against H. schachtii and BNYVV behaved like those with H. schachtii resistance in soils infected with beet cyst nematodes, but not with BNYVV. In soils with a combined infection of H. schachtii and BNYVV double resistant cultivars were far superior to single resistant ones, since damage caused by BNYVV was far more serious than damage caused by H. schachtii. No substantial interaction between soil pathogens nor types of resistance could be detected.     

PCR zum halbquantitativen Nachweis von Rübenzystennematoden

Increased crop yield of nematode resistant sugar beet varieties compared to non-resistant varieties is dependent upon density of the sugar beet nematode, Heterodera schachtii, being below a certain threshold level. Therefore there is a requirement for an inexpensive quantitative laboratory test for H. schachtii. Currently the standard method to determine nematode densities relies on extraction of cysts from soil samples and their subsequent enumeration which is time-consuming. The method described in this article involves the extraction of nematodes obtained by a technique inducing the hatching of juveniles. Hatching of larvae is induced by incubation of the soil sample with “Acetox” followed by a Baermann funnel extraction. Instead of a visual estimation of nematode densities using a microscope, H. schachtii larvae are identified by a molecular diagnostic. The aim of this study is to distinguish between the three threshold infestation levels by comparing the intensities of PCR products derived from samples containing known numbers of target H. schachtii.     

Composition of the stubble weed flora and its role for Heterodera schachtii in the year preceding sugar beet production

In Germany, sugar beet is often rotated with 2 years of cereal. Extensive fallow periods between cereal harvest and autumn primary tillage allow for a weed flora to develop. Broad‐leaved weeds could potentially be alternate hosts for the common nematode Heterodera schachtii, one of the most important pests of sugar beet. Between 2009 and 2012, annual weeds developing in cereal stubble fields during July to mid‐October in the season prior to sugar beet were surveyed, including known hosts of H. schachtii. Yearly weather patterns and agronomic practices possibly impacted weed species composition and weed population densities. During September, Chenopodium album, Cirsium arvense, Convolvulus arvensis, Mercurialis annua, Polygonum spp., Solanum nigrum and Sonchus spp. occurred at the highest frequencies. Weed hosts of H. schachtii were present, but densities, frequencies and uniformity were limited. In 2010 and 2011, staining for nematodes in roots revealed juvenile penetration of some weeds but few adult stages. No indication of nematode reproduction of H. schachtii was found on these weed hosts. A fairly stable weed flora was detected on stubble fields that could provide some carry over for weed species. An elevated risk for nematode population density build‐up on these weeds was not found and management of these weeds at the observed densities during the stubble period for nematological reasons appeared unnecessary.     

河南省禾谷类作物孢囊线虫的发生分布与种类鉴定

为探究河南省主要禾谷类作物孢囊线虫的发生分布,明确孢囊线虫对不同作物的危害情况,于2017—2020年对河南省18个市50个县（区）的小麦、玉米和水稻作物的孢囊线虫种类和发生分布进行随机取样调查,采用形态学特征、分子生物学鉴定和rDNA-ITS序列进化树分析技术鉴定不同作物孢囊线虫的种类,并根据土壤中孢囊基数和单孢囊卵数明确不同作物孢囊线虫的发病严重度。结果显示,共采集土壤样品308份,其中224份样品检测到孢囊,孢囊检出率为72.7%。小麦孢囊线虫发生分布范围覆盖40个县（区）,其中15个县（区）为禾谷孢囊线虫Heterodera avenae侵染,23个县（区）为菲利普孢囊线虫H. filipjevi侵染,南阳市西峡县西坪镇和开封市尉氏县张市镇为禾谷孢囊线虫和菲利普孢囊线虫混合侵染发生区;玉米孢囊线虫H. zeae在濮阳市清丰县韩村镇、许昌市长葛市董村镇和禹州市范坡镇检测点首次被发现;旱稻孢囊线虫H. elachista在信阳市潢川县魏岗乡、来龙乡和新乡市获嘉县亢村镇检测点首次被发现。孢囊线虫发病严重度数据表明,小麦田平均孢囊含量高达17.3个/100 mL;玉米田平均孢囊量为11.0个/100 mL;水稻田平均孢囊量为4.4个/100 mL。表明河南省孢囊线虫高发地块主要集中在豫北、豫东和豫中平原区。     

Multiple Selection of Potato Cyst Nematode Globodera pallida Virulence on a Range of Potato Species. I. Serial Selection on Solanum-hybrids

A series of selection experiments on potato cyst nematode Globodera pallida, pathotype Pa1, tested the virulence response of the nematode to a range of resistant potato Solanum genotypes. Alleles conferring virulence against all four Solanum sources used in the study (i.e. Solanum vernei, S. multidissectum, S. sanctae-rosae and S. tuberosum ssp. andigena) were detected. Selection for multiple virulence against a combination of resistant sources resulted in the originally-selected virulence genes being retained or lost. The mechanism, or basis, of potato cyst nematode resistance differs between the Solanum species. The appropriate use of resistance cultivars produced from a range of Solanum-resistant species offers a management tool for controlling potato cyst nematode levels in infested land.     

两种小麦孢囊线虫在河南省郑州的侵染动态比较研究

 近年来, 小麦孢囊线虫病已成为我国小麦生产上的重要病害之一。掌握病原线虫的侵染动态是病害防控基础。本文在田间条件下, 对两种孢囊线虫—禾谷孢囊线虫(Heterodera avenae)和菲利普孢囊线虫(H.filipjevi)在河南郑州的侵染动态进行了比较研究, 结果显示:小麦出苗后2周即可发现孢囊线虫的二龄幼虫侵入到小麦根内, 4周后少量二龄幼虫发育为三龄, 6周后根内幼虫数量达到第一次高峰, 同时发现少量四龄幼虫。小麦出苗60 d后, 由于温度较低, 根内各虫态数量基本维持稳定;在120 d后, 温度逐渐回升, 根内二龄幼虫数量逐渐增加, 幼虫数量的第二次高峰出现在小麦出苗后150 d左右, 但入侵幼虫数量明显少于第一次。此后根内幼虫陆续发育为白雌虫和孢囊, 白雌虫数量高峰出现在小麦出苗后180 d后。H.filipjevi三龄、四龄幼虫及白雌虫出现的时间均比H.avenae的早一周。     

Genetic and Phenotypic Diversity in the Graminaceous Cyst Nematode Complex, Inferred from PCR-RFLP of Ribosomal DNA and Morphometric Analysis

Graminaceous cyst nematodes form a group of eleven valid species including Heterodera avenae, Heterodera filipjevi and Heterodera latipons and constitute major pests to cereals. They are widely spread in circum-mediterranean areas where they are presumed to cause yield losses on bread and durum wheat. The objective was to document the diversity of these cereal cyst nematodes, in particular samples from Mediterranean regions, in comparison to species which develop on cultivated or wild grasses (H. arenaria, H. hordecalis, H. mani) and on rice or sugarcane (H. sacchari). Studies involved PCR-RFLP of ITS and morphometrics of the juvenile and cyst characters. UPGMA analysis of molecular data showed that the isolates segregated in two main clusters which seem to represent different evolutionary lineages. The H. avenae sensu lato cluster (I) contained H. arenaria, H. avenae, H. filipjevi and H. mani. The second cluster (II) contained isolates of H. hordecalis and H. latipons. Within H. avenae sensu lato, H. filipjevi was separated from the other related species with significant bootstrap value. The differentiation of H. arenaria, recognized for the first time based on molecular data, and H. mani with few restriction enzymes were the least significant. Intraspecific polymorphism allowed differentiation of isolates originating from Australia within H. avenae sensu stricto. The group H. hordecalis–H. latipons showed the greatest genetic variability between and within isolates. Two representatives of Heterodera sacchari, taxonomically included in the schachtiigrave group, were genetically as distant to this group as to the other graminaceous species belonging to either H. avenae sensu lato or H. hordecalis–H. latipons group. Results inferred from multivariate analysis applied on morphometrics of the cysts and juveniles showed agreement between genetic and phenotypic classifications. This study demonstrates the utility of combined molecular and classical methods to enhance our knowledge about the diversity within the complex of graminaceous cyst nematodes and to establish robust techniques to identify a wider set of nematode species.     

Suppression of potato cyst nematode root penetration by the endoparasitic nematophagous fungusHirsutella rhossiliensis

The endoparasitic nematophagous fungusHirsutella rhossiliensis was tested for its ability to suppress root penetration and cyst formation by the potato cyst nematode speciesGlobodera pallida. Isolates ofH. rhossiliensis were obtained from infected potato cyst nematode juveniles from different starch potato fields in The Netherlands. The isolates showed no difference in spore adhesion to juveniles on agar plates (adhesion rate: ±90%). The most rapid growing isolate, CBS 108.94, was used for experiments. Vegetative mycelial colonies ofH. rhossiliensis CBS 108.94, grown in potato dextrose broth, were used as soil inoculum. During submerged cultivation the mycelial colonies produced phialides (spore-bearing cells) but no spores. Exposed to the air, however, spores were rapidly formed. The effect of different soil inoculum densities of mycelial colonies on root penetration byGlobodera pallida was examined in an experiment in 250-ml pots. Up to a mycelial colony concentration representing a potential spore density of 10⁴ g^–1 soil no suppression occurred. At approximated densities of 2.5×10⁴ and 10⁵ spores g^–1 soil the numbers of juveniles which penetrated roots were reduced by 30% and 34%, respectively. The distribution of the inoculum could be improved by fragmentation of the mycelial colonies before soil inoculation. Using mycelial fragments, again no suppression of root penetration was observed up to a potential spore density of 10⁴ g^–1 soil, but at densities of 10⁵ and 10⁶ g^–1 a suppression of 54% and 88%, respectively, was measured. In a greenhouse experiment, soil inoculation with mycelial colonies with a potential spore production of 2.5×10⁵ g^–1 soil resulted in a suppression of root penetration of 37% and 51% after 5 and 6 weeks, respectively, but the number of newly formed cysts after 18 weeks in soil was not different for control and inoculated pots. It is concluded thatH. rhossiliensis may be useful for the reduction of root damage caused by juveniles of potato cyst nematodes, but the usefulness for population control is doubtful.     

Quantitative reproductive potential of Heterodera schachtii on weeds typical for late summer fallow in sugar beet rotations

In Europe, sugar beet is often produced in a 3‐year rotation with cereals, leaving stubble fields fallow from cereal harvest until primary tillage in autumn in the year prior to sugar beet production. The weed flora on such fields could include host plants of Heterodera schachtii that is one of the most important pests of sugar beet. Crop sequences with non‐hosts and cover cropping with resistant cruciferous hosts during this period have been crucial for its management. Availability of resistant and tolerant sugar beet cultivars could entice growers to forego cover cropping, exacerbating weed problems during the fallow period. The objective of this study was to determine the reproductive potential of H. schachtii on weeds that develop during this period. Under glasshouse conditions, reproduction on 39 plant species was compared with that on oilseed radish and sugar beet of differing nematode host status. In 2 years in field microplots, 18 previously tested species were grown in H. schachtii‐infested soil during the typical fallow period at 60 plants m^?2, and nine of these species were also grown at 180 plants m^?2. There were variable results between years after 8 weeks of growth, but most weeds allowed lower reproduction (<10%) than the susceptible sugar beet; only Stellaria media at 180 plants m^?2 and Thlaspi arvense at both plant densities increased nematodes. Such weed densities may seldom occur under commercial conditions; thus, weed management for nematological considerations during the stubble period may have limited importance.     

The influence of some agricultural practices on soil organisms and plant establishment of sugar beet

In a long term field experiment the influence of crop rotation and the application of insecticides and herbicides on soil arthropods (mesofauna), nematodes, soil fungi and weeds was investigated. Possible changes in numbers of not only pathogenic organisms, but also of predators or parasites of pathogens, could affect seedling establishment and/or yield of sugar beet. In soil samples taken during the spring, high population of the springtailOnychiurus armatus ware detected which caused considerable damage in the first two years. Later also rather severe infestations byAtomaria linearis occurred, probably caused by frequent sugar beet cropping.No significant influence of crop rotation on damage caused by soil arthropods could be detected yet, but in the 1/3 sugar beet and 2/3 winter wheat rotation more micro-arthropods and a higher diversity of species were found than in the blocks with continuous sugar beet growing. In the latter ones the numbers ofHeterodera schachtii increased and in 1980 the tolerance level was exceeded. On the contrary in the 1/3 sugar beet blocksPratylenchus spp. were dominant. Since a number of perennial weeds cannot be controlled sufficiently in sugar beet, some of them created a problem in the 1/1 sugar beet blocks.In the plots not treated with a soil herbicide large numbers of annual weeds provided alternative native food forO. armatus, which resulted in less plant damage. No significant effect of chloridazon on the micro-arthropod fauna could be detected. The insecticides lindane and aldicarb controlledO. armatus andA. linearis partially, and improved seedling emergence and to a lesser extent yield. Both insecticides had a variable effect on the relative abundancy ofCollembola and in addition lindane suppressed numbers ofAcariformes and aldicarb those ofParasitiformes. No negative influence on the species diversity could be detected. All effects did not last long and varied considerably from year to year.Indications were found that, if species ofCollembola, which could act as predators of nematodes, were suppressed, the numbers ofPratylenchus spp. andH. schachtii increased.Samenvatting In een veeljarig proefveld (1976–1979) werd de invloed van de vruchtopvolging en toepassing van insecticiden en herbiciden op bodemarthropoden (mesofauna), nematoden, bodemschimmels en onkruiden onderzocht. Niet alleen mogelijke veranderingen in de aantallen schadeverwekkers, maar ook in de aantallen predatoren en pathogenen van bodemplagen zouden het plantbestand en/of de opbrengst van suikerbieten kunnen beïnvloeden.Gedurende de eerste twee jaar van de proef werden in grondmonsters, die gedurende het voorjaar werden genomen, grote aantallen springstaarten (Onychiurus armatus) aangetroffen, die aanzienlijke schade veroorzaakten. Later kwamen eveneens aantastingen door het bietekevertje (Atomaria linearis) voor, waardoor in meerdere of mindere mate planten wegvielen.Er kon nog geen duidelijke invloed van de vruchtopvolging op de schade door bodemarthropoden worden vastgesteld, maar in de rotatie met 1/3 suikerbieten en 2/3 wintertarwe werden meer micro-arthropoden en een grotere soortenrijkdom gevonden dan in de gedeelten met een continuteelt van suikerbieten. In laatstgenoemde veldjes zijn de aantallen bietecystenaaltjes (Heterodera schachtii) toegenomen, waarbij in 1980 de tolerantiegrens werd overschreden. Daarentegen vond in de veldjes met 1/3 suikerbieten in de rotatie een sterkere vermeerdering vanPratylenchus spp. plaats dan in de continuteelt. Aangezien een aantal wortelonkruiden in suikerbieten niet voldoende kan worden bestreden, veroorzaakten enkele na enige jaren een probleem in de continue bietenteelt.In de veldjes die niet met een bodemherbicide waren behandeld vormden grote aantallen zaadonkruiden een alternatieve voedselbron voorOnychiurus armatus, wat een geringere aantasting van kiemplanten tot gevolg had. Er werd geen aantoonbaar effect van chloridazon op de micro-arthropoden vastgesteld.De insecticiden lindaan en aldicarb konden schade doorOnychiurus armatus enAtomaria linearis slechts gedeeltelijk voorkomen; er werd een duidelijk betere opkomst en soms ook een hogere opbrengst verkregen. Beide insecticiden hadden een wisselende invloed op de relatieve talrijkheid vanCollembola en bovendien onderdrukte lindaan de aantallenAcariformes en aldicarb deParasitiformes. Er kon geen negatieve invloed op de soortenrijkdom worden vastgesteld. Al deze effecten waren niet van langdurige aard en verschilden sterk van jaar to jaar.Er werden aanwijzingen gevonden dat, indien bepaalde soortenCollembola, die als predatoren van nematoden kunnen optreden, werden onderdrukt, de aantallenPratylenchus spp. enHeterodera schachtii toenamen.     

Rapid detection and quantification of viable potato cyst nematodes using qPCR in combination with propidium monoazide

Potato cyst nematodes (PCN), Globodera pallida and Globodera rostochiensis, are obligate parasites of solanaceous plants, causing severe losses in several potato growing areas throughout the world. To date, management of PCN is related to nematode population densities estimated as eggs per gram of soil, without considering the actual number of viable juveniles within the cysts. In classical nematology, the standard method to determine PCN viability is based on a staining assay, using Meldola's blue dye (MB) followed by microscopic visualization of MB‐treated nematodes. Although MB is considered to be reliable in staining embryonated juveniles within eggs and cysts, it is a time‐ and labour‐consuming assay. In the present work, a real‐time PCR (qPCR)‐based method combined with propidium monoazide (PMA), a photoreactive DNA‐intercalating dye, was developed for the quantification of viable PCN. This dye renders exposed DNA of dead cells unable to be amplified by PCR, and thus only DNA from viable/intact PCN juveniles is amplified and detected. The novelty of the present method lies in the simultaneous quantitative and qualitative estimation of viable PCN inocula using species‐specific primers and TaqMan probes. The PMA–qPCR viability method (v‐PCR) developed for the two Globodera species successfully discriminated dead from living specimens in heat‐treated samples and eggs in old and newly formed cysts. Interestingly, the detection of DNA from 34‐year‐old nematode cysts stored at room temperature was observed. In conclusion, the proposed v‐PCR method should prove to be very useful for the routine determination of PCN viability from field samples.     

The development of juveniles of Heterodera schachtii in roots of resistant and susceptible genotypes of Sinapis alba,Brassica napus,Raphanus sativus and hybrids

The development ofHeterodera schachtii Schm. (beet cyst nematode, BCN) juveniles in roots of resistant and susceptible genotypes belonging to cruciferous crop species and hybrids was studied from 4 to 28 days after inoculation. No difference in root penetration by larvae was observed between resistant and susceptible plants.The development of nematodes in roots from resistant plants ofRaphanus sativus L., resistant xBrassicoraphanus Sageret and a resistant hybrid xBrassicoraphanus x Brassica napus L. was similar. BCN resistance in these three sources of plant material appeared to be related to an increased male:female nematode ratio as compared to the ratio found in susceptibleR. sativus plants.Also in resistant plants ofSinapis alba L. and a resistant intergeneric hybridS. alba x B. napus the increase in male:female nematode ratio, as compared to the ratio found for susceptibleS. alba cultivars and a susceptible intergeneric hybridS. alba x B. napus, seemed to be related with the observed resistance. In roots of the resistantS. alba and of a resistant hybridS. alba x B. napus, however, BCN resistance might also be due to a slower development of larvae and increased necrosis of root cells at the site of larval penetration.     

Estimation of the viability ofHeterodera schachtii field populations by measuring ATP,ADP and AMP contents of eggs and juveniles using HPLC

An HPLC method has been developed to determine adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine monophosphate (AMP) in eggs and juveniles ofHeterodera schachtii in cysts extracted from soils. ATP levels in eggs and juveniles were highly correlated with the numbers of hatched juveniles in root diffusate (r=+0.92) in series of soil samples originating from field trials testing different doses of fumigant nematicides. The measured ATP concentrations in the cysts explained 59% of the sugar-yield reduction on these fields, which was similar to the value based on the hatching test. After fumigation, carried out in a laboratory experiment, ATP and the adenylate energy charge, (AEC=ATP + 0.5 * ADP)/(ATP + ADP + AMP), decreased greatly within a few days. In a series of greenhouse trials in whichH. schachtii had been parasitized severely byVerticillium clamydosporium and other antagonists, there were significant correlations between the numbers of hatched juveniles and the ATP content of the cysts (r=+0.85), and between the percentages of hatched juveniles and the AEC (r=+0.75). The HPLC method is faster than conventional methods and can be used to establish the viability ofH. schachtii field populations affected by soil fumigation or egg pathogens.     

Validation of the specificity and sensitivity of species-specific primers that provide a reliable molecular diagnostic for <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xiphinema diversicaudatum</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">X. index</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">X. vuittenezi</Emphasis>

Xiphinema diversicaudatum and X. index are vector nematode species of economic importance in viticulture regions as they can transmit Arabis Mosaic, Grapevine Fanleaf and Strawberry Latent Ringspot viruses to grapevine. Wang et al. (2003) designed species-specific diagnostic primers from ribosomal genes for both these vector species as well as a vector and a non-vector species X. italiae and X. vuittenezi, respectively. Our study aimed to confirm the specificity and determine the sensitivity and reliability of the primers for the two vector species, X. diversicaudatumand X. indexwhen challenged with closely related longidorid species and general nematode communities typical of vineyard soil. With one exception, no PCR product was observed when the primers were tested against six Longidorus, one Paralongidorus and one Xiphinema non-target species. Occasionally (three out of eight replicate PCR reactions) a weak PCR product was noted when primers for X. index were tested with L. elongatus. Furthermore, when challenged with a range of non-target nematode species comprising the nematode community typical of viticulture soil, no PCR product was amplified. An experimental dilution series of extracted DNA rigorously demonstrated that DNA from an equivalent single specimen of the target virus-vector species, X. diversicaudatum and/or X. index, could be detected amongst 1000 equivalent non-targetX. vuittenezi. Also, extracted DNA from an equivalent single target specimen was detected when added to DNA extracted from the overall soil nematode community. The primers were assessed further by using serial mixtures of actual nematodes rather than extracted DNA to simulate field soil. Using this method, a single target nematode could be detected amongst 200 non-target specimens. Given their specificity, sensitivity and reliability, it appears that these diagnostic primers will be of great benefit to phytosanitary/quarantine services related to the viticulture industry.     

云南省紫茎泽兰根结线虫病病原种类鉴定

为明确云南省紫茎泽兰根结线虫病的病原种类,于2019年2月在云南省澜沧县林下三七种植区采集根部带有明显根结的紫茎泽兰根系进行根结线虫分离,通过观察所分离根结线虫的2龄幼虫、雌成虫、会阴花纹特征对其进行形态学鉴定,并利用序列比对、系统发育树分析、序列特异性扩增区段(sequence characterized amplified region,SCAR)对其进行分子生物学鉴定。结果表明,该病原线虫雌成虫会阴花纹呈圆形至卵圆形,背弓中等高或低平,侧区一侧或两侧延伸形成翼状,尾区有刻点,2龄幼虫、雌成虫形态特征及形态测量指标与北方根结线虫Meloidogyne hapla相似;该病原线虫rDNA的ITS序列和mtDNA的COI序列与NCBI数据库中已登录的北方根结线虫相应序列相似度较高,分别达99.35%和98.05%以上;该病原线虫rDNA的ITS序列、mtDNA的COI序列分别以99%、100%的支持率与北方根结线虫聚为同一分支;利用SCAR特异性引物,该病原线虫均能扩增出大小约1 500 bp的基因特异性条带。综合形态学和分子生物学鉴定结果将云南省紫茎泽兰根结线虫病病原种类鉴定为北方根结线虫。     

Biologische Bek?mpfung des R��benzystennematoden Heterodera schachtii

The beet cyst nematode Heterodera schachtii is widely spread among sugar beet habitats with narrow crop rotation (especially in the warmer region of the Rhine Gorge). Without a consistent control management the economic efficiency of sugar beet cultivation under the current framework requirements is threatened. This problem is solved by the biological control using nematode-resistant oil radish or mustard which has been established during the last 25 years. Population of nematodes can be reduced up to 70% while maintaining the sugar beet yield on a high level. Big plot studies achieved a yield increase of 10?C15% thereby confirming the economic efficiency of nematode control measures using resistant undersown crops. Another starting point for problem solving lies within the cultivation of nematode-resistant sugar beet varieties. Currently, the sugar content and sugar yield of these varieties lie below the level of the standard varieties. Without nematode infection reduction in grain yield of approximately 10% must be accepted. Thus, cultivation is only economically reasonable in the infection areas. Heterodera schachtii is decreased by 60?C70%. Breeding of nematode-resistant sugar beet varieties has been the last step up to now. Already with low latent nematode infection these varieties clearly outbalance previous grain yields. A study series in 2009 showed an increase in sugar yield by an average of 10?C18% compared to the normal variety by cultivation of tolerant beet with latent nematode infection. Despite further developments in control management of tolerant/resistant beet, the culturing of resistant undersown crops remains up to date as these varieties, although only to a small degree, suffer from Heterodera schachtii.     

Nematicidal Activity of Chrysanthemum coronarium

Organic amendments and green manure are potential alternatives to the harmful chemical control means currently used against plant-parasitic nematodes. In this work, Chrysanthemum coronarium was applied to the soil as a green manure to control the root-knot nematodes Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica. Chrysanthemum coronarium significantly reduced nematode infection of tomato roots and improved plant-top fresh weight, both in the greenhouse and in microplots. Other green manures, derived from Anthemis pseudocotula, wild chickpea (Cicer pinnatifidum), Geranium spp. and wheat, were not as effective as C. coronarium. Chrysanthemum coronarium, retained its nematicidal activity even when applied as a dried material. Only mature C. coronarium plants, in their flowering stage, exhibited nematode control activity, but the green plant parts were more effective than the flowers. An aqueous extract of C. coronarium exhibited in vitro, nematostatic activity towards M. incognita and M. javanica second-stage juveniles and inhibited their hatching from eggs and egg-masses; its nematostatic activity was expressed also against other phytonematode species such as Heterodera avenae and Pratylenchus mediterraneus, but did not affect the beneficial entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae.     

Interactions Between the Potato Cyst Nematode Globodera rostochiensis and Diseases Caused by Rhizoctonia solani AG3 in Potatoes Under Field Conditions

Findings from 2 years of field experiments investigating the relationship between Globodera rostochiensis and Rhizoctonia solani on unique field sites are reported. In 2000, a field experiment was positioned on land that had previously been used for experimental work investigating integrated potato cyst nematode (PCN) management methods. This study had produced an ‘untypical’ mosaic of PCN population densities ranging from 5 to 221 eggs g⁻¹ soil. In 2001, the field experiment was conducted on a different field site and overlaid on a focus of G. rostochiensis population densities ranging from 11 to 108 eggs g⁻¹ soil. In each experiment, potatoes (cv. Désirée) were grown in plots with similar population densities of G. rostochiensis that were either uninoculated or inoculated with R. solani. A series of potato plant harvests were undertaken to investigate the effects of nematode infestation on the incidence and severity of R. solani diseases and the associated development of plants. In both experiments, a clear relationship was found between the density of G. rostochiensis juveniles present in potato roots and the incidence of stolons infected by R. solani, 6 weeks after planting. For the first time this interaction has been determined under field conditions. The results of the study suggest that the interaction between nematode and fungus is indirect and possible mechanisms are discussed.     

Het koolcystenaaltje,heterodera cruciferae Franklin, 1945, in Nederland

Summary Heterodera cruciferae is found in the Netherlands in five different locations, living on cabbage, rape and rapeseed, whereas beets are not attacked. ThisHeterodera is distinguished from nearly all otherHeterodera's known in Europe by its small, red brown, roundish lemon-shaped cysts and its short, thick larvae(Fig. 1, 2, 3, 5). The only exception isHeterodera humuli, which has however a thinner cyst wall of a lighter colour with a conspicuous, coarse, irregular punctation and larva stylets with distinctly forward-pointing knobs (Fig. 7, 8). The males are redescribed; they have 5–7 lip annules and three teeth on each spiculum tip (Fig. 4). Population density and type of damage with culture of rape seem to be about the same as with beet sickness caused byH. schachtii (Fig. 6). In the most important cabbage areaH. schachtii plays a more important role thanH. cruciferae. With both eelworms, an advisory service based on soil sample examinations would probably be useful for the culture of cruciferous crops.     

Induced Resistance to Cyst and Root-knot Nematodes in Cereals by DL-β-amino-n-butyric Acid

Foliar sprays and soil drenches with DL--amino-n-butyric acid (BABA) reduced the number of Heterodera avenae and H. latipons cysts on wheat and barley. Foliar sprays of wheat with 8000mgl^–1 BABA reduced the number of H. avenae cysts by 90%, whereas 2000mgl^–1 BABA was enough to reduce the number of H. latipons cysts by 79%. Multiple spray treatments with 2000mgl^–1 BABA at 10-day intervals reduced the number of H. avenae cysts on wheat and barley. A soil drench of wheat with 125mgl^–1 BABA reduced the number of H. latipons cysts by 93% and H. avenae cysts by 43%. Second-stage juveniles of these nematodes penetrated and formed syncytia in wheat roots soil-drenched with BABA. More adult males of H. avenae were produced in BABA (<250mg1^–1)-treated wheat roots (~76%) than in untreated roots (27%). Soil drenches with higher concentrations of BABA inhibited development of adult males and females. Several chemical elicitors of induced resistance were tested for their ability to reduce the number of H. avenae cysts on wheat. Only BABA was found to be an effective resistance inducer. The number of egg masses of an unidentified Meloidogyne sp. root-knot nematode, which infects only monocots, was also reduced by 95% by a soil drench of wheat with 500mgl^–1 BABA. Development of this nematode inside the BABA-treated roots was also inhibited.