Economic dependence of rural people on homestead forestry in Mymensingh, Bangladesh

Homestead forests contribute substantially to the rural economy of Bangladesh. Rural people depend on trees and plants for their energy usage, housing, food and other forms of subsistence livelihood. In order to identify the potential role of forests on homestead dwellers, an empirical field investigation was conducted in the four Upazilas of Mymensingh district of Bangladesh. It was found that land holdings of the respondents within the four sites are the highest in Mymensingh. The study made an important observation that among all homestead vegetation between 5–6 years old, tree species are generally preferred over plants. This is perhaps due to the efforts of the social forestry extension service to demonstrate that planting trees is an important long-term investment. In all four Upazilas, there was a significant correlation between household annual income and homestead forestry, agriculture and fisheries practice, suggesting that higher income families tend to have larger holdings of homesteads, farms and pond areas. Three Upazilas displayed a strong positive relationship (nearly 45%) between homestead forest areas and annual family income; however, the Fulbaria Upazila showed a very poor relationship (0.2%) in this regard. The results of this study suggest that homestead forests play a positive role in the rural economy, in addition to helping mitigate the increasing problem of deforestation in Bangladesh.     

Farmers’ Fruit Tree-growing Strategies in the Humid Forest Zone of Cameroon and Nigeria

Many studies have stressed the importance of trees to rural households. Few, however, have focused on actual numbers and densities of trees in different land-use systems. Based on community-level participatory research in six communities, semi-structured household interviews and full-farm fruit tree inventories, this study aims to understand farmers’ tree-planting strategies. Relationships between the diversity, number and density of fruit trees and farm size, land-use system, land tenure, distance from the homestead, proximity to the forest, market access and household characteristics are investigated. The key factors determining the differences in tree-growing strategies between communities appear to be market access, land use and access to forest resources. Within communities, differences between individual households were less easy to explain but tenure was important as was farm size. Smaller farms had higher fruit tree densities, a relationship that was particularly strong in communities with good market access. Overall there was a great deal of variability both within and between communities and many of the factors affecting tree-planting decisions were found to be highly inter-related. Despite this complexity, trees on farm play an important role in rural household's livelihoods. Therefore, expansion of tree cultivation should be recognized as a promising pathway to achieve increased income and food production by policy makers and extensionists alike. In addition to improved tree propagation and management techniques, farmers should be strengthened in the processing and marketing of agroforestry tree products and more emphasis should be placed on the development of tree enterprises. By doing so, farmers will be able to earn a more important and consistent income from fruit trees, contributing to the Millennium Development Goals.     

退耕还林与药用植物资源开发

将具有生态功能的药用林草植物种还在退耕的土地上，使退耕区广大的农民群众既改善了当地的生态环境条件．又增加了经济收入，并进行以林业为主的建设而开展非林业产业即药用植物资源的开发，建立长久稳固的经济产业，促进退耕还林还草的协凋发展，达到以林促经，以经养林，确保改善生态环境，经济生态双赢的目的。     

Tree planting by small producers in the tropics: A comparative study of Brazil and Panama

Forest regrowth is a notable phenomenon across the tropical forest latitudes. Such reforestation takes place in the wake of land abandonment, occurs cyclically in a rotational agricultural system, and may result from the deliberate planting of trees by farmers. Although less extensive than successional forest regeneration, tree planting by small farmers can have potentially important environmental impacts at both the site and global scale. This paper examines tree-planting efforts by small farmers in the tropical frontier regions of Panama and Brazil in order to gauge the magnitude of reforestation activities, and to identify factors that influence these efforts. This paper discusses the environmental regulations, forestry law, and tenure institutions in both countries, and performs a comparative analysis of reforestation efforts with information derived from household surveys (n = 356) and in-depth tree planting interviews (n = 35). Results from logistic regression are also presented. Our results show that tree planting occurs more frequently in Panama, which we attribute to greater external support in the provisioning of extension and materials and strong market incentives. We suggest that the proximity of the study sites to Panama City facilitates external support and market drivers. Finally, our results suggest that land tenure security is an influential determinant of reforestation activities in both countries.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Species Composition,Diversity and Productivity of Homesteads in Southeastern Bangladesh

A homestead is an integrated production system where trees, crops, livestock and poultry are found in and around the household residence in Bangladesh. It is a potential production unit that provides various product, service and ecological functions. Almost all people in Bangladesh including landless households have homesteads in which they grow trees and crops even in a small piece of land. This study characterizes the species composition, diversity and productivity of the homestead production system in the Teknaf peninsula, southeastern Bangladesh. Survey data collection was from a total of 180 homesteads covering five household categories: large, medium, small, marginal and landless. Vegetable, fruit, timber, and livestock and poultry were common components in the homestead production system. Various types of plants were mainly concentrated in back yards, front yards, boundaries and corners of homesteads. The mean number of tree species per homestead was about 15. In total, 189 tree and shrub species were recorded, and were distinctly high and low in the large (363.7) and landless (55.7) household categories. Species composition, diversity and productivity of homesteads were found to be related to household categories. Richness and diversity of tree and shrub species increased with household size. Betel nut was the dominant tree species followed by mango, jackfruit and coconut. Annual income from homesteads also varied among the household categories, with a mean contribution of the homestead to annual income of about 25 %. A large portion of homestead income came from betel nut trees. There is scope to increase species diversity and income by designing homesteads with the engagement of women and other family members.     

Farm Level Tree Planting in Pakistan: The Role of Farmers’ Perceptions and Attitudes

The low proportion of forested land and continuing degradation of existing forest cover are serious threats to the sustainability of forestry in Pakistan. Farm forestry has been identified as a feasible solution, particularly in the plain areas. Applying the Theory of Planned Behaviour in a survey of 124 farmers in Dera Ismail Khan district of Pakistan’s North West Frontier Province showed that farmers’ willingness to grow trees on their farms is a function of their attitudes towards the advantages and disadvantages of growing trees, their perception of the opinions of salient referents and factors that encourage and discourage farm level tree planting. Farmers viewed farm forestry as economically beneficial and environmentally friendly. Tree planting was perceived as increasing income, providing wood for fuel and furniture, controlling erosion and pollution and providing shade for humans and animals. Farmers saw hindrance in agricultural operations and the harbouring of insects, pests and diseases as negative impacts of tree planting; however, these were outweighed by their perceptions of positive impacts. Tree growing decisions of farmers were influenced by the opinions of family members, owners/tenants, fellow farmers and village elders. The factors that significantly predicted farm level tree planting were availability of barren land, lack of markets, lack of nurseries and damage caused by animals and humans. Farm forestry programmes are more likely to be successful if they acknowledge and address the factors which underlie farmers’ reasons for planting or not planting trees.     

林改后实现山区林农稳定增收的途径分析

集体林权制度改革后,将林地使用权、林木所有权和使用权落实到农户,确定了林农在林业经营中的主体地位,林农的爱林护林积极性将得到极大提高;另一方面,林农的经济利益和林区的生态建设之间短期内会出现矛盾,那么如何做到既鼓励林农种树护林的积极性并促进其增收,又维护生态和谐,这是必须解决的问题。本文结合云南省林权制度改革的实际情况,对上述问题进行了阐述。     

集体林权制度改革绩效评价理论与实证研究——基于江西省2484户林农收入增长的视角

简要阐述国外和我国公共政策评价内容、特点和实践情况,论述林业政策评价在我国的进展以及林权制度改革政策绩效评价的必要性.以江西省2 484个农户调查数据为基础,以农户收入增长为主要指标,评价林权制度改革后农民林业收入增长数量、增长速率以及增长机理;以典型县调查资料为依据,分析林权制度改革后农民林业收入增长的经济实质、持续增长的限制性,以及农民短期趋利性和森林经营的长期性之间的矛盾和由此引起的森林资源保护、管理和规模化经营等问题,并提出相应的政策建议.     

云南省林下经济发展研究

指出了云南省是林业大省,也是集体林权改革的重点省份。林下经济的发展对于云南省巩固林改成果、促进农民增收、提高土地利用率具有重大意义。根据云南省林业产业的优势,提出了发展林下经济的政策建议,以形成不砍树也能致富的林业发展新模式。     

Homestead forest resources and their role in household economy: A case study in the villages of Gazipur Sadar Upazila of central Bangladesh

This study examines the species composition, diversity and economic importance of homestead forests in the household economy of central Bangladesh. The study documents 57 homestead forest species and their main usage in 90 households across three villages of Gazipur Sadar Upazila. Homestead forests in Bangladesh comprise a mixture of fruit, timber and bamboo species. While superficially homestead forestry appears unimportant in rural livelihoods, in reality the contribution is huge, both as a source of food security and for other necessary household materials. A clear understanding of the physical characteristics and economic role of homestead forests in rural livelihoods is vital for ensuring sustainable resource management. Income and production of homestead forestry on a per hectare basis are found to vary widely between landholding size classes. Significant relationships are identified between forest performance (production and income) and species richness and education level. Homestead forestry appears to be a potential subsistence income generating land-use practice in the study area. The economic scope of homestead forestry can be further enhanced provided the appropriate species composition of the forest is achieved and the education of forest owners is ensured through targeted management and policy interventions.     

Improving adoptability of farm forestry in the Philippine uplands: a linear programming model

In the Philippines, smallholder farmers have become major timber producers. But the systems of timber production practiced have several limitations. In intercropping systems, the practice of severe branch and/or root pruning reduces tree-crop competition and increases annual crop yields, but is detrimental to tree growth and incompatible with commercial timber production. In even-aged woodlots, lack of regular income and poor tree growth, resulting from farmers’ reluctance to thin their plantations, are major constraints to adoption and profitable tree farming. In the municipality of Claveria, Misamis Oriental, the recent practice of planting trees on widely spaced (6–8 m) contour grass strips established for soil conservation suggests ways to improve the adoptability (i.e., profitability, feasibility and acceptability) of timber-based agroforestry systems. Assuming that financial benefits are the main objective of timber tree farmers, we develop a simple linear programming (LP) model for the optimal allocation of land to monocropping and tree intercropping that maximizes the net present value of an infinite number of rotations and satisfies farmers’ resource constraints and regular income requirements. The application of the LP model to an average farmer in Claveria showed that cumulative additions of widely spaced tree hedgerows provides higher returns to land, and reduce the risk of agroforestry adoption by spreading over the years labour and capital investment costs and the economic benefits accruing to farmers from trees. Therefore, incremental planting of widely spaced tree hedgerows can make farm forestry more adoptable and thus benefit a larger number of resource-constrained farmers in their evolution towards more diverse and productive agroforestry systems.     

Financial analysis of agroforestry land uses and its implications for smallholder farmers livelihood improvement in Ethiopia

A study was conducted in central highland Ethiopia to: (1) assess the financial feasibility and relative financial attractiveness of three agroforestry practices (small-scale woodlot, homestead tree and shrub growing and boundary tree and shrub growing); (2) evaluate the impacts of implementation of these land uses on farm households income and (3) identify the constraints for the implementation and expansion of the agroforestry practices. Then, 82 different land uses (21 small-scale woodlots, 35 homesteads and 26 boundary plantings) which were older than 15 years and established by the current owner were selected for the financial analysis. The input and output data were filled in a data sheet by face-to-face interview with the owners. The results showed that small-scale woodlot is the most profitable agroforestry practice followed by boundary plantings and homesteads. An ex-ante analysis of implementing the agroforestry practices showed that with minimum land area allocated for the practices, a household can generate net discounted revenues ranging from 5,908 to 26,021 Ethiopian Birr (532–2,342 USD) in 15 years at 10 % interest rate. Hence, the expansion of such agroforestry practices has a vital effect on farm household’s income. Lack of proper planning and poor in-depth understanding about roles of trees and shrubs for household’s income, land and seedling shortage, financial constraints and labor scarcity were identified as major problems for the expansion of agroforestry practices in the area. A thorough extension service comprising both efficient land resources utilization and proper planning practices could enhance the expansion of agroforestry practices and thereby positively influence the farmer’s livelihood.     

中国北方集体林权制度改革路径与林农生产决策

通过对辽宁省11县329户林农684块林地的调研, 从经营主体、林种、林地获取途径等方面对新一轮集体林权制度改革路径进行总结与归纳。以家庭经营与联户经营的改革路径为例, 建立Heckman二阶段决策模型, 实证分析林权制度改革路径对林农生产投资决策的影响。结果表明, 家庭经营对林农生产投资决策有显著的正向影响, 即家庭经营比联户经营更能提高林农林业生产投资的积极性, 并激励林农扩大林业投资规模。但是, 家庭经营也有受到资金、林地规模、生产技术的局限, 政府应进行林区金融产品创新, 鼓励林地流转, 引导林农参加林业合作经济组织。     

Farm Forestry Prospects Among Some Local Communities in Rachuonyo District,Kenya

Deforestation and degradation of productive lands are serious threats to the sustainability of forestry/agricultural practices in Kenya. In the last two decades farm forestry (FF) has been promoted through pilot projects among local communities as an example of sustainable land use. However adoption of FF is limited outside the project locations because FF improvement measures focused mainly on biological (e.g. succession, biodiversity and traditional industrial timber production) and technical concerns (e.g. material input delivery such as providing free tree seedlings for field planting) rather than local values, and interests and the constraints facing farmers. This study examined the local farm priorities and constraints and the prospects for the wider implementation of farm-level tree planting in four communities in Rachuonyo District. Using interviews with 597 randomly selected household heads, the study assessed farmer’s production assets and activities, land tenure, priority tree species and the constraints to growing trees on farms. Results show that farm labour is represented by a young population, 56.3% under the age of forty. They are mainly engaged in small-scale mixed cropping integrated with multipurpose trees and some livestock. Tree products contribute about 32% to household cash income, more than any other source (agricultural products, labour sales, etc). Females were more often household heads and had considerable influence over productive activities, making them an important target group in FF development. Farmers preferred exotic tree species due to their ability to provide short-term cash income, fuel and shade. Farmers’ concerns included population pressure on limited farmlands and the problem of credit for agricultural inputs. Given the feeling of secured tenure arrangement and influence of tree products on the household economy, farmers are likely to invest more in efficient land uses such as FF if consideration is given to local priorities.     

Determinants of farmers' adoption and adaptation of alley farming technology in Nigeria

Understanding the factors affecting framers' adoption of improvedtechnologies is critical to success of implementing agroforestry developmentprograms. This paper evaluated the determinants of farmers' decisions to adoptand adapt alley farming technology and its variants in the farming systems ofNigeria, using econometric Logit models. Eleven variables were significant inexplaining farmers' adoption decisions. The model results show that farmercharacteristics that influenced adoption included the gender of the farmer,contact with extension agents, years of experience with agroforestry and tenancystatus in the village. Economic factors, proxied by village-levelcharacteristics that condition resource use incentives, were also significant.These variables include the extent of village land pressure, extent of erosionintensity, village fuel wood pressure, importance of livestock as an economicactivity in the village and the distance of the village locations from urbancenters. The paper showed that farmers are already making significantmodifications to the conventional alley farming technology introduced byscientists. The two most important modifications were the introduction of fallowperiods into the conventional system and changes in the pruning regime of thesystem. Model results showed that human capital variables were significant inexplaining farmers' decisions to adapt and modify the technology. Farmereducation and family size significantly influence the choice of pruning regime.Farmers' age, education, intensity of erosion in the farmers' village, andfarmers' land availability significantly influence whether or not fallowperiod is introduced into the conventional system. To promote greater adoptionof agroforestry alternatives to slash-and-burn agriculture, particular attentionshould be placed on the use of appropriate socioeconomic characterization, tobetter target technologies to areas with higher adoption potential. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Farmer’s Perception of and Factors Influencing Agroforestry Practices in the Indus River Basin,Pakistan

Agroforestry practices of farming communities are investigated in southern Punjab province, Pakistan. It is hypothesized that rural people of this areas are more inclined than elsewhere in the province to practice agroforestry due to greater profitability than cropping. A landholder survey revealed that the majority of farmers are inclined to plant trees on their land. Low accessibility of institutional credit is a constraint for both agroforestry farmers (AF) and non-agroforestry farmers. However, among AF respondents only 24% were found to need credit for agroforestry practice, as against nearly 76% for crop production. Mostly farmers were found to have positive perceptions regarding agroforestry practice, because they understand the multiple benefits from growing trees, compared with cropping where farmers face various constraints, including poor access to credit, natural hazards, and little support from local authorities. Further, effort to sensitize farmers that growing trees has multiple benefits compared to only cultivation of field crops can bring about change in farmer’s perceptions and attitudes in the Indus River basin, resulting in motivation for agroforestry adoption.     

Socioeconomic factors affecting the adoption potential of improved tree fallows in Africa

In many parts of Africa, farmers periodically fallow their land, which is allowing land to lie idle for one or more seasons primarily to restore its fertility. This paper assesses the feasibility, profitability, and acceptability of improved tree fallows, which are the deliberate planting of trees or shrubs in rotation with crops to improve soil fertility. Improved tree fallows are assessed at different stages of intensification, drawing on farmers' experiences in three different settings. In extensive systems where land is plentiful and existing fallows with natural regeneration of vegetation restore soil fertility (southern Cameroon), farmers have little incentive to invest labor in establishing improved fallows. Where population density is higher and fallow periods are decreasing and farmers perceive a decline in soil fertility (eastern Zambia), improved fallows have great potential. In intensive systems where land is unavailable and cropping is often continuous (western Kenya), many farmers find it difficult to fallow land. Even here, there is scope for introducing improved fallows, especially among farmers who have off-farm income. Labor constraints and institutional support were found to greatly influence the feasibility of improved fallows. In intensive systems, low returns to cropping, low base yields, and a high opportunity cost of labor increase the returns to improved fallows. Principal factors associated with acceptability include past perception of soil fertility problems, past use of measures for improving soil fertility, current fallowing, economic importance of annual cropping, and wealth level. Adoption potential may be increased by reducing fallow periods, intercropping trees and crops during the first season, reducing establishment costs, producing higher value by-products, and by encouraging farmers to test improved fallows on high-value crops.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

基于林业自然灾害的农户森林保险需求实证分析——以福建、江西、湖南、陕西4省为例

森林保险具有分担农户林业经营风险、扩大林业融资规模的显著作用。文中利用对江西、湖南、陕西和福建4省农户的647份调研数据,对农户参与森林保险的需求进行实证分析,利用Logistic模型对包括林业自然灾害在内的影响农户参与森林保险的各项因素进行回归分析。结果表明,林业自然灾害、受教育程度、健康状况、家庭外出打工人数、家庭人口规模、林地面积、林业收入占比、参加合作组织情况对森林保险需求的影响在不同省份显著不同,其中林业自然灾害对农户的森林保险需求呈显著影响的省份为福建和湖南。     

Factors Affecting Small-Scale Farmers’ Land Allocation and Tree Density Decisions in an <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acacia decurrens</Emphasis>-Based <Emphasis Type="Italic">taungya</Emphasis> System in Fagita Lekoma District,North-Western Ethiopia

The development of woodlots as an additional source of livelihood and as a land management option for small-scale farmers is a challenging issue in the cereal-based subsistence farming systems of north-western Ethiopia. There is a need to understand why and which factors determine the decisions of small-scale farmers to grow short-rotation woodlots on their land. Data used in this study were collected from a survey of 200 randomly selected households in the region. A Tobit regression model was used to determine predictor variables for farmers’ decisions to allocate land to planting Acacia decurrens (J.C. Wendl.) Willd. and at what density trees are planted on the respective plots. The most important motivations for planting A. decurrens were income, soil fertility management, and soil and water conservation. Having a male head of household, long distance to markets and plots being on marginal land, among other factors, increased the allocation of land to A. decurrens woodlots. Having a male head of household, access to credit and plots being on marginal land, among other factors, increased tree planting density. Age had a negative effect on both allocation of land to woodlots and tree density, whereas farm size had an inverted U-shaped relationship with both decisions. These results suggest that wider expansion of A. decurrens-based plantation systems could be achieved through improving extension, credit access and road infrastructure to connect small-scale farmers to markets and finance.     

浅谈如何在新农村中开展林果技术服务

目前,土地流转、技术服务、推广资金、人员素质等一系列问题,严重制约了新农村林果经济的生产与发展.在建设社会主义新农村的伟大历史时期,要增加农民收入,大力发展林果经济,重点加强科技推广,林业资源开发,林业技术人员培训等,努力提高林果技术服务的水平和效果.