Virus-like particle-based countermeasures against Rift Valley fever virus

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is an arbovirus that causes significant morbidity and mortality in both humans and livestock. With increased world travel and the threat of bioterrorism, there is a real risk of RVFV spreading to na?ve geographical areas (Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 73, 1979, 618; MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep., 49, 2000, 905). The introduction of RVFV would cause critical public health, agricultural and economic damage. Despite the clear need for an efficacious vaccine, there are no United States (US) Food and Drug Administration or US Department of Agriculture approved vaccines against RVFV. To address this need, a virus-like particle (VLP)-based vaccine candidate was developed. First, a non-replicating chimeric RVF VLP vaccine candidate was generated that protected mice and rats against a lethal RVFV challenge. This was followed by the development and optimization of conditions for production of RVF VLPs in insect and mammalian cells. Immunological studies demonstrated that VLP-based vaccine candidates elicit both humoral and cellular immune responses. Subsequent challenge studies using a lethal wild-type RVFV strain under high-containment conditions showed that RVF VLP vaccine candidates can completely protect mice and rats.     

Competitive ELISA for the detection of antibodies to Rift Valley fever virus in goats and cattle

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is one of the important emerging viral diseases of serious impact in public health and animal hygiene both in human and animal industries. In this study, we developed a monoclonal antibody-based competitive ELISA for the detection of antibodies to RVFV in goats and cattle. The recombinant N protein of RVFV was expressed in E. coli with a six-histidine tag, and the purified N protein was used for detecting antigen with a competitive monoclonal antibody against RVFV antibodies. The competitive ELISA (C-ELISA) could detect antibodies at 9-11 days after inoculation in goats and cattle with a sensitivity of 94.7% (virus neutralization titer >32) and specificity of 99.7%, respectively. In addition, the C-ELISA did not show any cross-reactivity with positive sera against arboviruses such as Akabane, Aino, Chuzan, Ibaraki and bovine ephemeral fever virus, which are prevalent viral agents in ruminant animals throughout Southeast Asia. The results of the present study indicate that the C-ELISA is a simple, rapid and convenient serodiagnostic method for RVFV in goats and cattle.     

Recombinant nucleocapsid-based ELISA for detection of IgG antibody to Rift Valley fever virus in African buffalo

Wild ruminants are thought to serve as natural hosts for Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) but the role of these animals as reservoirs for RVFV during inter-epidemic periods and as amplifiers during epidemics is not well understood. An indirect enzyme-linked immunoassay (I-ELISA) based on the recombinant nucleocapsid protein (rNp) of RVFV was validated for the detection of specific IgG antibodies in African buffalo. Data sets derived from testing buffalo sera from Kenya (n=405) and South Africa (n=618) were dichotomised according to the results of a virus neutralisation test. The assay characteristic performance was analysed using threshold values optimised by the two-graph receiver operating characteristics (TG-ROC) analysis, and by mean plus two, as well as by mean plus three standard deviations derived from I-ELISA PP values in uninfected animals. Among 1023 buffalo sera tested, 77 (7.5%) had detectable virus neutralising antibodies. The assay had high intra- and inter-plate repeatability in routine runs. At a cut-off optimised by the TG-ROC at 95% accuracy level, the diagnostic sensitivity of the I-ELISA was 98.7% and diagnostic specificity 99.36% while estimates for the Youden's index (J) and efficiency (Ef) were 0.98 and 99.31%. When cut-off values determined by traditional statistical approaches were used, the diagnostic sensitivity was 100% but estimates of J, Ef and other combined measures of diagnostic accuracy were lower compared to those based on cut-off value derived from the TG-ROC. Results of the study indicate that the I-ELISA based on the rNp would be useful for seroepidemiological studies of RVFV infections in African buffalo.     

A Rift Valley fever atlas for Africa

Rift Valley fever (RVF) epidemics have serious consequences for human and animal health and the livestock trade. Recent epidemics have occurred in previously unaffected regions, increasing concerns that the geographical range of RVF will continue to expand. We conducted an extensive, systematic review of the literature to obtain serological data for RVF in Africa, collected between 1970 and 2000 from human, livestock and wild ungulate populations. Aims were to calculate sub-national estimates of RVF infection prevalence and to define areas where no information was available. We presented the data (aggregated at the first administrative level of countries) using a geographical information system. Data from 71 publications were used to build a spatially explicit Bayesian logistic-regression model, with spatial and non-spatial random effects, allowing us to identify clusters of high and low RVF seroprevalence, and fixed effects that described the disparate nature of the survey subjects and methods. Significant high-prevalence clusters encompassed areas that had experienced epidemics during the late 20th century and significant low-prevalence clusters were located in contiguous areas of Western and Central Africa.     

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of antibodies to Rift Valley fever virus in ovine and bovine sera

An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed for the rapid detection of antibodies to Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) in ovine and bovine sera. Conditions to reduce nonspecific reactions were optimized. The ELISA results correlated with those of a plaque-reduction neutralization test, revealing 100% specificity and 90.7% sensitivity. In sera from sheep and cattle inoculated against RVFV, the hemagglutination-inhibition test in combination with the ELISA provided a better indication of response to killed RVFV vaccine than did either test alone.     

猪瘟病毒荧光RT-PCR快速检测方法的建立

以猪瘟病毒5＇端非编码区为靶核酸序列设计引物和探针，建立了一步法荧光RT-PCR检测猪瘟病毒。荧光RT-PCR仅检测出猪瘟C株、T株，未能检测出牛病毒性腹泻病毒（BVDV）、猪呼吸系统冠状病毒、猪传染性胃肠炎病毒、猪细小病毒、伪狂犬病病毒、猪生殖与呼吸综合征病毒、PK-15细胞和牛睾丸原代细胞；对猪瘟病毒T株的扩增反应产物进行了测序分析，与预期序列相符。荧光RT-PCR的检测极限可达到1 TCID50／mL，整个试验流程只需2h。采用荧光RT-PCR和抗原捕获ELISA同时检测临床病料、猪副产品共207份样本，两种方法的检出率分别为17．4％和13．5％，两者符合率为95．7％（198／207）；荧光RT-PCR的检出率高于ELISA，两者差异显著。结果表明，建立的荧光RT-PCR可用于猪产品、临床病料中猪瘟病毒的快速检测。     

Experimental infection of the African buffalo with the virus of Rift Valley fever

Summary Five African buffalo(Syncercus caffer) were inoculated with pantropic Rift Valley fever virus; 1 of 2 pregnant animals aborted. Four of the 5 developed a viraemia persisting for 48 h with an antibody response comparable to that found in cattle after RVF infection. No neutralising antibody was found in a series of some 114 feral buffalo sera from different parts of East Africa.

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Infeccion Experimental Del Bufalo Africano (Syncercus Caffer) Con El Virus De La Fiebre Del Valle De Rift

Resumen Se inocularon cinco búfalos con virus pantrópico de la fiebre del Valle de Rift; uno de dos animales preñados abortó. Cuatro de los cinco desarrollaron virémia, la cual persistió 48 horas comparable a la encontrada en ganado después de la infección natural. No se encontraron anticuerpos neutralizantes en una serie de 117 sueros de búfalos salvajes de diferentes áreas de Africa del Este.

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Infection Experimentale Du Buffle Africain (Syncercus Caffer) Avec Le Virus De La Fievre De La Vallee Du Rift

Résumé Cinq buffles africains ont été inoculés avec du virus pantropique de la fievre de la Vallée du Rift: une des deux femelles en gestation a avorté—quatre de ces cinq animaux ont eu une parasitémie qui a duré 48 heures avec une réponse immunitaire comparable à celle observée chez les bovins après une atteinte de cette affection. Aucun anticorps neutralisant n'a été mis en évidence dans le sérum de quelque cent dix sept buffles sauvages en provenance de diverses régions de l'Afrique de l'Est.

     

Comparison of the pathogenicity for pregnant sheep of Rift Valley fever virus and a live attenuated vaccine

A live attenuated mutant of Rift Valley fever virus, MV P12, was previously shown to be non-pathogenic in young lambs, but capable of producing protective immunity. The studies reported here show that the abortion in sheep caused by an infection with virulent virus is the result of necrosis of the maternal villi and cotyledons arising from an acute inflammation of the maternal caruncles. Pregnant ewes infected with the attenuated mutant virus MV P12 showed none of these lesions in the placenta and gave birth to healthy lambs. Colostrum from ewes infected with MV P12 virus was able to induce protective immunity in the offspring. These data along with previously published results suggest that the mutant virus MV P12 is an excellent candidate for use as a live attenuated veterinary vaccine.     

塞内卡谷病毒和口蹄疫病毒双重荧光RT-PCR检测方法的建立

为建立塞内卡谷病毒(SVV)和口蹄疫病毒(FMDV)的快速鉴别检测方法,本试验根据SVV 3D基因序列和FMDV 3D基因序列,分别设计探针和引物,建立了可同时检测SVV和FMDV的双重荧光RT-PCR法。结果表明,该方法特异性强,能准确检测出SVV核酸和FMDV核酸,与水泡性口炎病毒(VSV-IND和VSV-NJ)、猪水泡病病毒(SVDV)、猪繁殖与呼吸综合征病毒(PRRSV)以及猪瘟病毒(CSFV)等病原核酸无交叉反应;灵敏度高,本试验中最低可检测到SVV和FMDV核酸质量浓度分别为1.35×10~(-5),1.68×10~(-5) mg/L。重复性好,Ct值变异系数小于4%。利用所建立方法对116份已知的临床样品进行检测,结果与参比方法一致。本试验建立的方法可用于SVV和FMDV的鉴别检测,为塞内卡病毒病和口蹄疫的诊断提供依据。     

Pathogenicity and immunogenicity of a mutagen-attenuated Rift Valley fever virus immunogen in pregnant ewes

A mutagenized clone of Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV; MV P12) used in inoculation of 3 pregnant ewes was immunogenic, nonpathogenic, and nonabortogenic. In contrast, inoculation of a matched group of 3 pregnant ewes with parent RVFV induced clinical disease and abortions. Ewes given MV P12 delivered healthy lambs that had RVFV antibody titers of less than 1:10 at birth, increasing to greater than or equal to 1:80 after ingestion of colostrum. Ewes inoculated with parent RVFV developed marked viremia, followed by RVFV antibody titers greater than or equal to 1:1,280; ewes inoculated with MV P12 developed low viremia titers and RVFV antibody titers of 1:80 to 1:320. Postpartum challenge exposure of the previously MV P12-inoculated ewes with virulent Zagazig human 501 strain RVFV indicated that the ewes were protected from clinical disease. The RVFV-susceptible female Culex pipiens that fed on the MV P12-inoculated ewes failed to transmit RVFV to hamsters; mosquitoes that fed on the parent RVFV-inoculated ewes became infected and transmitted RVFV to hamsters.     

Indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of antibody against Rift Valley fever virus in domestic and wild ruminant sera

An indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (I-ELISA) for the detection of specific IgG immunoglobulins against Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) was validated in-house. A total of 3055 sera from sheep (n = 1159), goats (n = 636), cattle (n = 203), African buffalo (n = 928), and other wild ruminants (n = 129), including eland, kudu, and black wildebeest, was used. Sera from domestic ruminants were collected in West (n = 10), South (n = 1654) and East Africa (n = 334), and sera from wild ruminants (n = 1064) were collected in South Africa. In addition, 136 sera from eight experimentally RVFV-infected sheep, taken during a period of 28 days post infection (dpi), were used to study the kinetics of RVFV antibody production. Field sera were tested by the serum neutralization (VN) test and experimental sera by VN and haemagglutination-inhibition (HI) test. Based on VN test results, negative sera were regarded as reference controls from RVFV-free, and positive sera were regarded as reference controls from RVFV-infected subpopulations of animals. ELISA data were expressed as the percentage positivity (PP) of an internal high positive control. The two-graph receiver operating characteristics approach was used for the selection and optimization of I-ELISA cut-offs including the misclassification costs term and Youden index (J). In addition, cut-off values were determined as the mean plus two-fold standard deviation of the result observed with the RVFV-free subpopulations. Established optimal cut-offs were different for each of the data sets analyzed, and ranged from 1.65 PP (buffalo) to 9.1 PP (goats). At the cut-off giving the highest estimate of combined measure of diagnostic accuracy (highest J value), the I-ELISA test parameters were determined as follows: (1) Diagnostic sensitivity (%): cattle--84.31, buffalo--94.44, sheep--98.91, goats--99.18. (2) Diagnostic specificity (%): cattle--99.34, buffalo--98.28, sheep--99.16, goats--99.23 and other game ruminants--99.26. In the group of RVFV-experimentally infected sheep, seroconversion In all individuals was detected by VN on 4-6 dpi, by HI on 5-7 dpi, and by I-ELISA on 6-7 dpi. All tests showed the same kinetic pattern of immunological response. Antibody levels were low for a very short period before increasing to high titres, after which it was easily detectable by all tests. Compared to traditional tests, the lower sensitivity of I-ELISA in the detection of the earliest stage of immunological response may be practically insignificant, particularily when this assay is used in population-based, disease-surveillance programmes. The high sensitivity and specificity of I-ELISA established in this study, especially for the statistically more representative subpopulations of animals tested, seem to support this prediction. Test parameters determined in this study should, however, be regarded as in-house diagnostic decision limits, for which further updating is recommended, particularly for specimens from other countries, and preferably by applying a standardized method for sampling of new subpopulations of animals to be targeted by the assay.     

Teratogenicity of a mutagenised Rift Valley fever virus (MVP 12) in sheep

A 5-fluorouracil mutagenised Rift Valley fever virus strain, which was shown to be attenuated and immunogenic in cattle and sheep, was evaluated for its ability to cause teratogenic effects in pregnant sheep. A group of 50 sheep at various stages of pregnancy was inoculated with the virus and the pregnancies followed to term. There were two abortions and 14% of the lambs produced by vaccinated ewes showed teratogenic effects, the most prevalent being spinal hypoplasia, hydranencephaly, brachygnathia inferior and arthrygryposis. The foetal malformations of the central nervous and musculo-skeletal systems were mostly consistent with those observed in sheep vaccinated with the attenuated Smithburn RVF strain. The teratogenic effects of MVP12 were not seen in previous experiments by other authors as immunisation of sheep took place in the second to third trimester of pregnancy, when the foetal brain tissue has completed most of its cell division.     

Ability of a mutagenized virus variant to protect young lambs from Rift Valley fever

A live attenuated vaccine virus variant of Rift Valley fever (RVF) virus was developed by passaging a human isolate in tissue culture under the influence of the mutagen 5-fluorouracil. This virus variant (MV P12) has been assessed in this study as to its suitability as a vaccine, by testing its pathogenicity in young lambs and measuring its ability to induce a protective immune response. Even high doses of the vaccine virus failed to induce any of the clinical or histopathologic changes associated with classical RVF virus infection. Although the vaccine induced mild pyrexia when given in high doses, viremia was not induced. Neutralizing antibody and a protective immune response was elicited with even low doses of vaccine virus. These data, along with data of other workers on the lack of abortigenicity of this virus variant, indicate that the MV P12 variant of RVF virus is an excellent candidate for a safe and effective vaccine against RVF.     

裂谷热病毒eGn蛋白的制备及免疫原性验证

通过PCR扩增裂谷热病毒(RVFV) Gn蛋白胞外区(eGn)基因,连入原核表达载体pET-30a(+),构建重组质粒pET-30a(+)-RVFV-eGn。将重组质粒转化至感受态BL21(DE3),IPTG诱导蛋白表达,经HisTrap~(TM)FF蛋白纯化柱纯化目的蛋白。将目的蛋白免疫BALB/c小鼠,分离小鼠脾细胞与小鼠骨髓瘤细胞融合,筛选分泌特异性抗体的杂交瘤细胞株,制备单克隆抗体,免疫荧光鉴定制备的单克隆抗体特性。结果显示,PCR扩增出1 287 bp的目的基因;构建的重组质粒转化BL21细胞后可有效表达目的蛋白,确定最佳表达条件为30℃,0.8 mmol/L IPTG诱导5 h,目的蛋白以包涵体形式表达;纯化后目的蛋白纯度为94.136%;制备的单克隆抗体可特异性识别哺乳动物细胞表达的Gn蛋白,表明RVFV eGn蛋白具有良好的免疫原性。研究结果为裂谷热新型疫苗和快速诊断试剂的研制奠定基础。