An immersion technique for studying wood wettability

Summary The wetting properties of wood were studied by a modification of the Wilhelmy technique. This method involved continuously monitoring the force exerted on a wood specimen as it was immersed at a controlled rate into a liquid. Wettability was expressed in terms of the area under the force-immersion curve and was referred to in this study as wettability index. The applicability of the technique was demonstrated for padauk and white spruce wood specimens heated for various time periods. The wettability of these woods in both distilled water and sodium hydroxide solutions decreased with increasing heating time. Sodium hydroxide solution yielded higher wettability index values, indicating that it was a better wetting agent than distilled water. The pH of the sodium hydroxide solution had a strong influence on magnitude of the wettability index. The possibility of using the technique for examining wood surface inactivation in relation to bonding with different adhesives is discussed.The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Dr. W. G. Warren and his staff for the statistical analyses and curve fitting. Dr. Casilla also expresses his gratitude to the National Research Council of Canada and to the Canadian Forestry Service, Department of the Environment, for a postdoctoral fellowship     

Effect of wood species,digester conditions,and defibrator disc distance on wettability of fiberboard

Wettability of medium density fiberboard (MDF) surface affects paint or adhesive application and is, thus, of importance in the course of furniture manufacturing. This study investigated the effects of wood species, digester conditions and defibrator disc distance on the wettability properties. It was found that the wettability of the MDF significantly decreased with increasing the defibrator disc distance and increased with the increment in the severity of the digestion conditions. The highest wettability was found for samples made of beech wood having an average contact angle value of 74.5°, followed by poplar wood (76.5°), birch wood (79.7°), the mixture (1:1) of scots pine and beech wood (82.9°), and scots pine wood (86.4°), respectively.     

Effects of moisture content and specific gravity on static bending properties and hardness of six wood species

This study was designed to investigate the effects of moisture content (MC) and specific gravity (SG) on the bending strength and hardness of six wood species including Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don), China fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), red meranti (Shorea spp.), Selangan batu (Shorea spp.), and red oak (Quercus spp.). The experimental results are summarized as follows: Effects of MC and SG on the strength (MOR), stiffness (MOE), and hardness (H _B) could be represented by a multiregression formulas. A negative correlation existed between these properties and MC, whereas a postive correlation showed between them and the SG. The changing rate of these properties induced by 1% MC changes varied with the wood species: 2.6% change in MOR was observed in Japanese cedar, China fir, western hemlock, red meranti, and Selangan batu; and 3.9% was found in red oak. For MOE, a 0.58% change was observed in Japanese cedar, China fir, and red meranti; western hemlock and Selangan batu exhibited 1.2% and red oak 2.5%. For hardness, a 1.1% change was observed in Japanese cedar, western hemlock, and red oak; red meranti and China fir exhibited 3.3%; and Selangan batu 1.8%.A part of this report was presented at the 48th annual meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society in Shizuoka, Japan, April 3-5, 1998     

Comparative study on penetration characteristics of modern wood coatings

Summary The penetration characteristics of five modern wood coatings (three waterborne, one high solid and one solvent borne) into pine sapwood, spruce and dark red meranti have been systematically compared. The degree of coating penetration is mainly determined by the ability of the coating to flow into wood capillaries. Binder type, pigmentation, solid matter content and drying speed appeared to influence this ability. In softwoods the following different coating penetration routes are observed: the flow into open ends of longitudinal early-and latewood tracheids, the flow into ray cells and the transport from rays through the cross-field into longitudinal tracheids adjacent to rays. The possibility for the coating to follow the latter route is strongly influenced by the existing type of cross field pitting and to a lesser degree by the pigmentation of the paint. Clear differences between pine and spruce have been found with respect to the flow into ray parenchym and ray tracheids. The flow into open ends of longitudinal tracheids is strongly influenced by the grain angle of tracheids. Penetration into dark red meranti is mainly limited to vessels and rays. Tylose membranes can prevent the complete filling of vessels. The impact on penetration of the removal of extractives and of sanding of the surface has also been studied but appears to be of only minor importance.The authors want to thank Akzo Nobel Coatings, DSM Resins and Sigma Coatings for their technical support. This research was financed by the the Dutch Innovative Research Program on Coatings under contract number IVE 93-812. Authors also thank the University of Hamburg (BFH) for the use of their electron microscopy facilities.     

Estimating the wettability of wood by the axisymmetric Drop Shape Analysis-contact diameter method

Summary The wettability of four wood species was determined by the Axisymmetric Drop Shape Analysis-contact diameter (ADSA-CD) technique. The ADSACD technique calculates the contact angle by solving the Laplace equation of capillary given the following variables: contact diameter, volume of the liquid drop, liquid surface tension, density difference between the two fluid phases and the gravity constant. The liquid surface tension, density, and gravity are known. The volume of the liquid sessile drop is obtained by means of a micrometer screw syringe. The contact diameter, the only main experimentally determinable variable is obtained by manually selecting an arbitrary set of coordinates characterizing the perimeter of the sessile drop. The ADSA-CD technique was used on four wood species (pine, cedar, ash and elm) and it was found to be a simple, adaptable, and excellent tool for measuring the contact angles on wood surfaces.The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support of the Ontario Centre for Materials Research, The University of Toronto, and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, grant Nr. A8278. Ms. Z. Policova is acknowledge for technical assistance     

Wettability and liquid sorption of wood investigated by Wilhelmy plate method

The wettability of Scots pine veneers was investigated with different approaches using the Wilhelmy plate method. The probe liquids were water and octane, which differ; in that, water is able to swell the wood sample, whereas octane does not. Novel approaches based on the Wilhelmy plate method to study wettability, liquid penetration, and swelling behavior of wood veneers are introduced. First, immersion to constant depth was performed, and liquid uptake with time was evaluated. Different kinetic regimes, the fastest one associated with contact angle changes and the slowest regime associated with liquid sorption by capillary and diffusion, were observed. Two other approaches, imbibition at constant depth (with initial deeper immersion) and full immersion, were utilized in order to keep the contact angle constant during measurements. Dynamic wettability studies were done by a multi-cycle (10–20 cycles) Wilhelmy method. Based on this, the time-dependent swelling of wood and changes in sample perimeter could be obtained. Generally, water showed higher absorption than octane. In all wettability studies, and for both probe liquids, the penetration process starts with a fast initial sorption, which is followed by swelling in the case of water.     

水性树脂底漆对木材表面润湿性的影响

水性树脂底漆对木材表面润湿性能的影响是决定木器涂装质量的关键因素。为了给木器水性漆涂装提供基本依据,选择松木、杉木、橡木、奥古曼和非洲紫檀5种木材,研究水性丙烯酸树脂底漆、水性丙烯酸改性聚氨酯底漆、双组分水性丙烯酸树脂对其表面润湿性能的影响。采用正交试验设计方案,以漆种、底漆质量分数、树种和干磨砂纸粒度为影响润湿性的因素,分别研究水性树脂底漆在木材弦、径切面的接触角大小和5种木材弦、径切面的孔槽比,分析影响木材表面润湿性的因素及原因。结果表明:4个因素水平中,底漆质量分数和漆种对木材表面润湿性的影响非常显著,树种对其影响显著,干磨砂纸粒度对其无显著影响;5种木材径切面的孔槽比高于弦切面,针叶材弦、径切面的孔槽比高于阔叶材,径切面的润湿性优于弦切面,针叶材表面润湿性优于阔叶材;此外,单组分水性树脂底漆在5种木材弦、径切面的润湿性优于双组分水性树脂底漆。因此,在木器水性漆高质量涂装中,对于不同木材种类应该选择合适的水性涂料及最优质量分数,才能保证涂装中底漆良好的质量。     

Wetting of wood

Summary Thermodynamic work of adhesion, contact angle, wettability and acid-base contributions of the wetting of four North American wood species were determined using the Wilhelmy technique. The wetting angles with water varied from 60° for Sitka spruce to 74° for Douglas-fir. The wood surfaces had a strong acidic character since the greatest interactions for all the wood species occurred with formamide (basic probe) while lesser interactions were obtained with ethylene glycol (acidic probe). In addition, dispersive and polar surface free energies of wood, _d ^s and _p ^s respectively, were determined using Wu's simultaneous equations. In general, 75 to 80% of the total surface free energy of wood was due to dispersion forces. Specific wettabilities of wood and advancing contact angles in thirty various organic liquids were also evaluated.     

Effect of adding steam-exploded wood flour to thermoplastic polymer/wood composite

The effect of steam-exploded wood flour (SE) added to wood flour/plastic composite was examined using SE from beech, Japanese cedar, and red meranti and three kinds of thermoplastic polymer: polymethylmethacrylate, polyvinyl chloride, and polystyrene. Addition of SE increased the fracture strength and water resistance of the composite board to an extent dependent on the polymer species and the composition of wood/SE/polymer. However, water resistance decreased with the increasing proportion of SE when SE meranti was added. Effects of the wood species of SE on the properties of resulting board were small. An increased moisture content of wood flour or SE (or both) increased the variation of board performance.     

微波等离子体处理对杉木表面性能的影响

为了解微波等离子体处理对杉木表面性能的影响,使用接触角测定评估表面润湿性,使用扫描电子显微镜观测表面处理前后的差异。结果表明,杉木表面轻微波等离子体处理后,接触角下降为零,即使处理条件十分微弱、处理效果仍然十分明显,这表明微波等离子体处理可显著提高木材表面的润湿性,微波等离子体处理使杉木表面形成粗化面,即表面明显有等离子体蚀刻过的痕迹并留下凹凸不平的坑洼,粗化面的形成可能是导致杉木表面接触角下降,     

Removal of cadmium (II) from aqueous solutions by adsorption using meranti wood

Meranti wood, an inexpensive material, has been utilized as an adsorbent for the removal of cadmium (II) from aqueous solutions. Various physico-chemical parameters such as equilibrium contact time, solution pH, initial metal ion concentration, and adsorbent dosage level were studied. Langmuir, Freundlich, Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) and Temkin isotherms were used to analyze the equilibrium data at different temperatures. The experimental data fitted well with the Langmuir adsorption isotherm, indicating the monolayer adsorption of the cadmium (II). The monolayer adsorption capacity of meranti wood for cadmium (II) was found to be 175.43, 163.93 and 153.84?mg/g at 30, 40, and 50°C, respectively. The thermodynamics of cadmium (II) adsorption on meranti wood indicates its spontaneous and exothermic nature. Kinetic studies showed that the adsorption followed a pseudo-second-order kinetic model. The results indicated that the meranti wood could be an alternative for more costly adsorbents used for cadmium (II) removal.     

Wettability of Poplar Wood Impregnated by Phenol-formaldehyde Resin

In this study,plantation poplar wood was first impregnated by low molecular weight phenol-formaldehyde(PF) resin solution by vacuum-pressure process.And then the wettability of sanded and non-sanded radial and tangential sections from un-impregnated and impregnated poplar wood was tested respectively by the measurement of contact angles using different liquids.Finally,the surface free energy of different samples was estimated by the plot extrapolation method.The results showed that the wettability of woo...     

仿生超疏水木材表面微纳结构制备研究进展

仿生构建超浸润界面材料在自清洁、生物防污、防水抗结冰等领域具有巨大的潜力,但目前在木材科学领域的设计、制备和实践应用依然存在很大的挑战.根据仿生学原理,笔者简述了超疏水表面相关设计的基本理论以及多尺度粗糙结构在优化不可润湿表面结构中的作用,总结了 3种构建仿生超疏水木材的有效途径,推导出本征接触角的计算公式及体系自由能...     

Anatomical characterization of decayed wood in standing light red meranti and identification of the fungi isolated from the decayed area

To further our understanding of wood decay in living light red meranti (Shorea smithiana) trees, microscopic characteristics of the cell and cell wall degradations of S. smithiana wood in the presence of the decay fungi, the identity of the causal fungi, and the decay potential and pattern by an isolated fungus were investigated. Cell wall degradations, including cell wall thinning, bore holes formation, rounded pit erosion, and eroded channel opening were clearly observed under light and scanning electron microscopy. In transverse view, many large voids resulting from a coalition of degraded wood tissue appeared in the decayed canker zone. All these observations suggest the well-known simultaneous decay pattern caused by white-rot fungi. By phylogenetic analysis based on the sequences of internal transcribed spacer region of ribosomal DNA, a basidiomycete fungus isolated from the decayed wood was identified as Schizophyllum commune. The degradation caused by this fungus on sound S. smithiana wood in an in situ laboratory decay test was classified as the early stage of simultaneous decay, and showed a similar pattern to that observed in the wood samples naturally decayed.     

Weathering characteristics of hardwood surfaces

Summary Four hardwoods, red oak, white oak, yellow-poplar, and sweetgum, were exposed to outdoor weathering and to artificial ultraviolet (UV) light with wavelengths of >220 and >254 nm. Discoloration and loss of brightness were observed from all specimens regardless of their exposure conditions. White oak and sweetgum changed color at a slower rate than did red oak and yellow-poplar. SEM micrographs showed that all wood species exhibited surface deterioration after 30 days exposure to sunlight or 500 hrs to UV light. Loss of middle lamella, separation of procumbent cells, and damage of pit structures were observed on transverse sections for all species. ESCA studies revealed a high oxygen content at the wood surfaces indicating severe oxidation of wood exposed either outdoors or to artificial UV light. The generation of new chromophoric groups such as carbonyls, carboxylic acids and quinones, and the loss of lignin at the oxidized surface were demonstrated experimentally by infrared studies.This study was supported by cooperative research funds provided by the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin. The authors wish to acknowledge this support     

Growth and photosynthetic responses of four Virginia Piedmont tree species to shade

To determine the effects of shade on biomass, carbon allocation patterns and photosynthetic response, seedlings of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.), white pine (Pinus strobus L.), red maple (Acer rubrum L.), and yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) were grown without shade or in shade treatments providing a 79 or 89% reduction of full sunlight for two growing seasons. The shade treatments resulted in less total biomass for all species, with loblolly pine showing the greatest shade-induced growth reduction. Yellow-poplar was the only species to show increased stem height growth in the 89% shade treatment. The shade treatments increased specific leaf area of all species. Quantum efficiency, dark respiration and light compensation point were generally not affected by the shade treatments. Quantum efficiency, dark respiration, maximum photosynthesis and light compensation point did not change consistently between the first and second growing seasons. We conclude that differences in shade tolerance among these species are not the result of changes in the photosynthetic mechanism in response to shade.     

Changes in wettability of heat-treated wood due to artificial weathering

Effect of artificial weathering on the wettability of three heat-treated North American wood species (jack pine, aspen, and birch) is studied from the point of view of the structural and chemical changes taking place on the wood surface. Weathering increases wettability of all three heat-treated woods by water. Changes in wettability during artificial weathering differ according to heat treatment procedure and wood species and are likely due to combination of structural and chemical changes of the surfaces. Scanning electron microscopic analysis indicates that cracks form due to degradation taking place during weathering. As a result, water has easier entry into the cell wall, which consequently increases wettability. IR spectra suggest that the OH/CH₂ ratio for heat-treated specimens is inversely proportional to the contact angle regardless of the type of wood species. The presence of cellulose-rich layer on wood surface and increasing amount of amorphous cellulose transformed from crystallized cellulose due to weathering result in increase in hydroxyl; consequently, it increases heat-treated wood wettability.     

圆盘豆热处理材颜色变化及其变化机理

试验采用过热蒸汽作为传热介质和保护气体,对圆盘豆木材进行热处理,热处理温度为160℃、180℃、200℃、220℃,热处理时间为2h、4h、6h、8h,并采用紫外光谱和气-质联用对圆盘豆木粉抽提物进行分析。结果表明,热处理后圆盘豆木材颜色发生明显变化。随着热处理温度升高,木材明度L*下降,红绿色品指数a*变化不明显,黄蓝色品指数b*下降,色差△E*增大,木材表面颜色加深,其主要原因是木素及木材抽提物发生了氧化、还原反应。     

Void structure and permeability of paper relative to that of wood

Differences in the permeabilities of wood and paper are considered on the basis of differences in structure resulting in intra fiber permeability of wood and inter fiber permeability of paper as shown by measurements of the pressure to displace saturating liquids held in the structure by surface tension forces.     

Fluid permeability in poplar tension and normal wood in relation to ray and vessel properties

The impact of ray and vessel features on the radial air permeability and liquid penetration was compared between poplar (Populus nigra) tension and normal wood. Air permeability was measured by the falling-water volume-displacement method. To measure liquid penetration, specimens were saturated with safranin solution by the full-cell process at low pressure, and the pattern of red color penetration was then examined. Results revealed no significant difference in vessel frequency, intervessel and vessel-ray pit diameter between tension and normal wood, whereas porosity and average vessel lumen area in normal wood were significantly greater than those in tension wood. Regarding rays, their length was not different between normal and tension wood, but the latter had more frequent rays per millimeter. Since xylem rays are important flow conduits in lateral movement of fluids, it could be hypothesized that a larger number of rays in tension wood would lead to improved radial permeability. However, neither air permeability nor liquid penetration varied significantly in the studied specimens. Consequently, the results proved that ray frequency has no determining role in radial fluid flow in poplar tension and normal wood and that the share of intervessel and vessel-ray pits in radial permeability is more important.