Wintering Habitat Evaluation of Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) in Forest Area of Northeastern China

IntroductionTheprofessionalsworkofwildlifemanagementisatargetforpopulationmanagement,butmoreandmoreprofessionalsworkersareinterestedinthemanagementofthewildlifehabitat(Belley,1984).ItisoneofessentiafworksforustoappraisehabitatwiththescientificmanagementontheReddeerpopulation.Soitisusefultoconservation,developmentandutilizationoftheReddeerinananimal'sperspective.Sincethe1970'smanyscientistshavebeenstudyingthehabitatevaluationfordeer.Severalmodelsandmethodssuchasthelineardiagram,thematrixmodel…     

Red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) management in the dehesa system in Central Extremadura,Spain

In this paper we report the results of a study on the suitability of the dehesa (Mediterranean woodlands) as habitat of red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) in a closed country estate of about 4300 ha total surface situated in the San Pedro Mountain, in Central Extremadura, Spain. We have described the deer management with respect to habitat, exploitation mode, deer feeding, population control and production of goods and services. It is concluded that the dehesa system is a rich natural resource that preserves and improves the degraded environment.

---

Resumen En el presente trabajo se estudia la dehesa como hábitat del ciervo (Cervus elaphus hispanicus). Se ha tomado como referencia una finca cerrada de 4300 ha de ST situada en la Sierra de San Pedro, en Extremadura, España. Se describen los sistemas de gestión actuales del ciervo en cuanto a hábitat, modo de explotación, alimentación, control de población y producción de bienes y servicios. Concluyendo con la necesidad de fomentar este tipo de explotaciones cinegéticas de dehesa que ayudan a conservar y potenciar el medio ambiente en zonas despobladas y deprimidas

---

Abbreviations CS collected surface - DMFCU deedmixed feed cattle units - Fi final inventory - FS fertilized surface - Ii Initial inventory - K Potassium - N Nitrogen - NBF number of breeding females - NBFIi number of breeding females of initial inventory - NBFR number of breeding females released - NBM number of breeding males - NBMIi number of breeding males of initial inventory - NBMR number of breeding males released - NCCR number of captive calves released - NCFi number of calves of final inventory - NCR number of calves released - NFR number of female renovation - NYMR number of young males released - NYFR number of young females released - P phosphorus - PP permanent Pastures - pts pesetas - QS Quercus stalks - RDED resources directly eaten by deer - SPOM selected hunted down poor quality males - SS sowed surface - TN total needs of deer - TNR total number released - UAS useable agrarian surface - WB wooded brush - WQS wooded Quercus surface - WS wooded surface     

Protein nutrition in red deer (Cervus elaphus)

Red deer can adjust to seasonal change of forage quality to maintain a relatively constant crude protein level (21.1±4.0, 14.7±1.0, 11.1±1.1 and 6.5±0.8 in spring, summer, fall and winter, respectively). Apparent protein digestibility is variable from −99.9% to 97.5% depending upon season and forage type. True protein digestibility is 99%. Digestion of protein is significantly influenced by phenolics in diets. Minimum digestible energy intake of 153.5 kcal/kg^0.75/day is necessary to maintain a positive nitrogen balance. Red deer recycles 18–85% of the urea produced and urea kinetic parameters (urea pool size urea entry rate and urea excretion rate) are correlated to plasma urea concentration. Rumen NH₃-N production changes with season, but seasonal changes in other NH₃-N kinetic parameters (NH₃-N concentration, NH₃-N pool size and NH₃-N outflow rate) are in dispute. Protein metabolism may be promoted in response to cold stress. Endogenous urinary nitrogen is 0.09 (red deer) and 0.16 g N/kg^0.75·day (elk). and metabolic fecal nitrogen is 5.58 g N/kg dry-matter intake. Protein requirements ranges from 100 g/kg DM to 170 g/kg DM for red deer of various ages and physiological stages. In conclusion, the knowledge of protein nutrition of red deer is limited. Much work is urgently needed in metabolism and requirements of protein before the appropriate feeding standard of red deer is coming.     

Over-winter weight dynamics in supplementally fed free-ranging sika deer (Cervus nippon)

Continuous body weight dynamics in supplementally fed free-ranging sika deer (Cervus nippon) during the three consecutive overwinters (from January to April), 1992–1994 were surveyed. Almost all individuals lost weight continuously throughout each winter (adult deer 5–13%; young deer 3–19%) and several deer lost weight even in April. Weight gain after loss began in the mid-April when ambient temperature increased and when plant growth began. Weight dynamics varied according to sex, age and reproductive status. Adult deer showed significant large weight loss than the young. Young deer lost weight (calves 18±11 g/day, yearling and two-year-olds 27±29 g/day) more slowly than the adults (65±23 g/day). Following this study of over-winter body weight dynamics, it seems that early springs are the most critical periods for the survival of free-ranging sika deer because of their poor nutritional condition. A portion of this report was presented at the 106th Annual Meeting of the Japanese Forestry Society (1994).     

Protein Nutrition in Red Deer (Cervus elaphus)

Reddeerareimportantbiggameanimals,distributedwidelyinAsia,EuropeandNorthAmerica.Inrecentyears,thefarmingofreddeerisbecominganimportantformoflivestockdiversificationwhichtapsnewmar-ketsandpastureresources.Throughouttheworld,morethanl,l86,9OOreddeerarereare…     

Variation in winter daily range area of red deer(Cervus elaphus xanthopygus) based on DNA extracted from fecal samples

With environmental change and increased human activity,wild red deer(Cervus elaphus xanthopygus)populations and habitat area continue to decrease.Red deer is a main prey species of Amur tiger(Panthera tigris altaica).Factors affecting red deer winter home range in the Wanda montains of northeast China are not well understood.In this study,we aimed to better document red deer daily ranges to support conservation of red deer.A second objective was to develop a practical research method combining macro-and micro-technology for home range research on a variety of rare or endangered wild species.We collected 105 fresh fecal samples of red deer in three different periods during winter from December 2012 to March 2013 in the Wandashan region,Heilongjiang Province,China.Individual and sex identities were analyzed based on fecal DNA using microsatellite DNA.We used samples from deer farms for correction and validation of our identifications from field samples.We used a combination of molecular scatology,3S techniques(GPS),and direct observation to estimate winter daily range areas.Based on eleven microsatellite loci,we identified 18 individuals,10 females and 8 males,with a correction factor of 1.00 and sex ratio of 1:0.8.The mean(±SE)number of alleles was 5.1±0.41,and mean polymorphism information content was 0.63±0.03.Expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.46 to 0.81,with a mean of 0.69±0.03,and mean observed heterozygosity was 0.73±0.07.Sizes of mean daily ranges were 26.1±1.1 ha in December,89.3±1.6 ha in January,and 67.5±1.9 ha in March,indicating the following trend for daily range area:middle winter>late winter>early winter.Mean daily range area was insignificantly larger for males than for females.Estimated winter daily ranges were similar to those reported for Europe.Our combination of macro-and micro-technology proved useful for estimating winter home range areas of red deer.     

Development of a method for forest cafeteria tests for evaluating chemical deterrents against bark stripping by sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis)

Damage caused by sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) is a serious problem in commercial and environmental (non-harvested) forests in Hokkaido, northern Japan. Cafeteria tests in forests may be useful for evaluating the efficacy of chemical deterrents against bark stripping by deer. To develop a method for forest cafeteria tests in the continuous snow cover period, two experiments were carried out. In the experiments, logs were produced from tree trunks, and used as carriers of chemical deterrents. Carriers were installed in forests and fed to deer. The first experiment was to find suitable sites and installation methods for carriers. Criteria for the local suitability and the installation methods were as follows: a) Sites where deer are active should be selected; b) Carriers should be installed along actively used deer trails; c) Installation sites of carriers should be changed in response to deer movement; d) Carriers should be produced from tree species that deer naturally prefer; and e) Each carrier should be partially buried in the snow. The second experiment evaluated the feasibility of a cafeteria test method based on the results of the first experiment. The method was used for 13 sets of the cafeteria test, in which the deterrent effectiveness of 5 chemicals (wood tar, rosin, wood vinegar, and 2 pyroligneous liquors) was examined. We obtained results from all the sets. The chemicals tested did not deter bark stripping by deer. Nevertheless, the method used in the present study was practical for the cafeteria tests.     

Effects of bark stripping by sika deer, Cervus nippon, on wind damage to coniferous trees in subalpine forest of central Japan

We evaluated the effect of bark stripping by sika deer (Cervus nippon), and subsequent wood decay, on tree fall in a coniferous forest on Mt Ohdaigahara in central Japan from July to September 2006. This valuable primeval coniferous forest is declining because of bark stripping. Broken trunks of Abies homolepis and Picea jezoensis var. hondoensis had more serious decay and larger bark-stripping wounds on the trunk than standing trees, suggesting that bark stripping causes trunk decay and results in broken trunks and uprooting by typhoons.     

Height growth of young larch (Larix kaempferi) in relation to the frequency of deer browsing damage in Hokkaido, Japan

The effect of browsing frequency by Sika deer (Cervus nippon yezoensis) on the height growth of Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi) in Hokkaido, Japan, was analyzed. Tree heights at the time of the census and at the start of the current growing season were determined for 100 trees selected randomly at each site. The tallest shoot on each tree was identified and the number of browsing occurrences on the current-year shoot was determined. Young larches browsed by deer repeatedly develop new shoots during a growing season. Larch is a browsing-tolerant species, and the average height growth of the most heavily browsed trees was >15 cm. Although resprouting partly compensated for decreased height growth caused by browsing, the annual increase in height decreased with increased browsing frequency. Thus, browsing frequency during a growing season best reflects the intensity of browsing damage to larch trees.     

Expansion of dwarf bamboo, Sasa nipponica, grassland under feeding pressure of sika deer, Cervus nippon, on subalpine coniferous forest in central Japan

The long-term changes of the area of Sasa nipponica grassland, bark stripping damage to trees by sika deer, Cervus nippon, and sika deer densities on Mt. Ohdaigahara were assessed with aerial photographs, information from previous studies, and field experiments. The grasslands expanded year after year. The expansion rate was highest from 1982 to 1992, and lowest from 1992 to 1997. Bark-stripping damage on coniferous trees was heavier than that on broadleaf trees in both the early 1980s and 1998. The deer density in the eastern part of the area had been high (14.4–64.3 km⁻²) from 1984 until 1998. We presume that rich growth of S. nipponica and heavy feeding pressure by sika deer over the long term caused expansion of S. nipponica grasslands by killing canopy trees by bark stripping and preventing forest regeneration.     

Digestive rate of Dongtian F1 red Dear in weaning period and growth period

In this paper, 4N-HCLAIA method was adopted to conduct digestive tests in young female and male Dongtian F₁ red deer (Cervus elaphus) of rearing seperately in growth period and mixed raising in weaning period in Harbin Specialty Research Institute. Results indicated that digestive rate of crude protein and crude fiber were 95.35% and 73.68% respectively when rational protein content was 26.8% in growth period, Digestive rate was not significantly different between female and male(P>0.05); During weaning period, when rational crude protein content is 22.06%, digestive rate of crude protein and crude fiber were 93.05% and 63.96%, respectively. The tests suggest that higher rational protein can be effective in accelerating growth of young Dongtian F₁ red deer during growth period and weaning period(before 10 months old). (Reponsible Editor: Chai Ruihai)     

Effects of deer and mice on seedling survival in a temperate mixed forest of Japan

To detect the magnitude of indirect positive effects of deer and mice on seedling survival of some woody species in a Japanese temperate forest, we analyzed the data from an earlier field experiment using a hierarchical Bayesian approach. The forest studied was inhabited by sika deer (Cervus nippon) and mice (Apodemus spp.), and the floor was covered with dwarf bamboo, Sasa nipponica, which negatively affected tree seedlings and was in turn negatively affected by deer and mice. The field experiment was designed as the combination of exclusion or removal of these factors: deer, mice and dwarf bamboo. A hierarchical Bayesian model was constructed and the parameters were estimated by the Markov chain Monte Carlo method. The model successfully showed the indirect positive effects of deer and mice, which improved the survival rate of five cohorts of the seedlings of three tree species by ameliorating the direct negative effect of dwarf bamboo. The cohorts studied were formed by the seedlings of Abies homolepis that emerged in 1997 and 2002, those of Fraxinus lanuginosa f. serrata that emerged in 1998 and 2002, and those of Fagus crenata that emerged in 1999. The positive indirect effect was especially large in F. crenata, which is known to be severely affected by dwarf bamboo. The total effect of deer was shown to be positive for all cohorts except the A. homolepis cohort that emerged in 1997, at which time the dwarf bamboo had not yet fully recovered from the browsing pressure of deer. The total effect of mice was shown to be positive for all of the cohorts. We conclude that these positive effects were due to the large negative effect of dwarf bamboo on the seedlings.     

Population density and range use of sika deer,Cervus nippon, on Mt. Ohdaigahara, central Japan

We investigated the population density and range use of sika deer,Cervus nippon, on Mt. Ohdaigahara, central Japan, from July 1996 to July 1997. The deer population density estimated by the block count was high at 17.5–30.9 deer/km². Although the deer remained this area from spring to fall, they moved out in winter, probably because of deep snow. A spotlight count showed that the deer prefer the eastern area as spring-summer range, where the forest consists of coniferous trees over a floor cover ofSasa nipponica, andS. nipponica grassland. The deer also use dense coniferous forest for cover, especially in summer and fall. Part of this study was presented at the 108th Annual Meeting of the Japanese Forestry Society (1997). This study was financially supported by the Environment Agency, Japan.     

Effect of wind damage on the habitat suitability of saproxylic species in a boreal forest landscape

Many forest-dwelling species are dependent on deadwood. Sources of deadwood include competition- and senescence-related mortality of trees, and various damages. This study described a methodology for predicting the effect of wind damage on the amount of deadwood and suitability of the forest for saproxylic species. The methodology was used in a forested boreal landscape of 360 ha to analyze the effects of wind damage on the habitat quality for 27 groups of saproxylic species differing in their requirements for the species, size and decay stage of deadwood objects. A reference plan maximized net present value (MaxNPV) while others either minimized or maximized height differences between adjacent stands. Maximization of height differences resulted in high amount of wind damage and deadwood while minimizing height differences minimized wind damage and the amount of damage-related deadwood. The fourth plan maximized the average habitat suitability index (HSI) of the 27 groups of saproxylic species. The plans were compiled with and without even-flow harvesting constraints for three 10-year periods. Maximization of height differences between adjacent stands resulted in higher HSI values than obtained in the MaxNPV plan or in the plan than minimized height differences between adjacent stands. The average HSI of shade-demanding species correlated negatively with the amount of harvested timber. No strong correlations were found for light-demanding and indifferent species.     

Conifer leader browsing by roe deer in English upland forests: Effects of deer density and understorey vegetation

At moderate to high densities ungulates can impact negatively on forest crops and these may be managed by lethal control. In production forestry an understanding of the relationship between ungulate density, habitat-related factors and the incidence of tree damage may promote more efficient ungulate damage management than by lethal control alone. In plantation forests in the north east of England, the incidence of conifer leader browsing by roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) was positively associated with an index of deer density (at the site scale) and planted crop tree density (at the feeding patch scale) and was negatively associated with the relative abundance of palatable understorey vegetation (at the site scale). An interaction between the deer density index and palatable understorey browse abundance was positively associated with leader browsing. Coefficients from the optimal model were used to construct a browse probability surface across a matrix of values of deer dung density and palatable understorey vegetation abundance. This illustrated a very different relationship between dung density and conifer leader browsing probability across the various levels of palatable understorey vegetation abundance. From this we hypothesise that in areas of limited palatable understorey vegetation abundance, higher levels of culling may be required to achieve reductions in the incidence of conifer leader browsing than would be necessary in areas with moderate to high palatable understorey vegetation abundance. Improvements to understorey vegetation in concert with roe deer population control may enhance the efficiency of deer damage management in upland areas with nutrient-poor soils.     

The nutritional composition and digestion of plants foraged by red deer(Cervus elaphus xanthopygus) in northeast China

We studied species of plants foraged by red deer in the Muling forest region of northeastern China during January 2014 and 2015. We focused on nutritional composition, energy content, and the digestibility of these plants. Crude protein content varied by plant species.Average crude protein content was 7.5 ± 1.7% of dry matter, ranging from 4.5 to 10.3%. Crude lipid content did not vary by species and averaged 7 ± 1.5%(range5.4–9.8%). Non-fiber carbohydrate(NFC) and neutral detergent fiber(NDF) content varied broadly with average values being 20.1 ± 4.8%(range 13.5–28.8%) and64.7 ± 5.9%(range 53.5–71.8%), respectively. Energy content ranged from 16.7 to 19.7 k J/g. Average dry matter digestibility(DMD) was 46.1 ± 4.8%, with a range from38.7 to 54.6%. Only three plants, Saussurea manshurica,Aralia elata and Equisetum hyemale exhibited DMD [ 50%. NFC content explained most of the variation in energy content(r = 0.451). In contrast, energy content was inversely related to NDF(r =-0.443). There was no correlation between crude protein, crude lipid, and energy content(r_(protein)= 0.004, r_(lipid)=-0.190). S. manshurica,A. elata and E. hyemale had higher NFC and lower NDF content. Thus, these species offered the greatest nutritional value for wintering red deer in the study area. Along with high CP and NFC content, Taxus cuspidate also had high lignin content, and was thus, considered a good forage species for red deer.     

Developing and testing a landscape-scale habitat suitability model for fisher (Martes pennanti) in forests of interior northern California

The fisher is warranted for protection under the Endangered Species Act in the western United States and, as such, it is especially important that conservation and management actions are based on sound scientific information. We developed a landscape-scale suitability model for interior northern California to predict the probability of detecting fishers and to identify areas of important fisher habitat. Previous models have been extrapolated to this region, but our model was developed from the results of strategically planned detection surveys within the study area. We used generalized additive modeling to create a model that best distinguished detection (n = 55) from non-detection (n = 90) locations on the basis of environmental covariates. Four models were averaged to create a final model including the following variables: Amount of Dense Forest, Percent Hardwood, Medium & Large Trees, Structurally Complex Forest, Adjusted Elevation, Insolation Index and Predicted Abundance of Mammalian Prey. This model was well calibrated and correctly classified fisher detections 83.6% of the time and absences (non-detections) 70.0%. Independent test data were classified less well; 76.2% and 53.0%, respectively, perhaps a result of differences in the spatial and temporal characteristics of the data used to build versus test the model. The model is the first comprehensive portrayal of the distribution and configuration of habitat suitability in this region and provides managers a tool to monitor habitat change over time and to plan vegetation treatments. It also represents an example for the development of similar models for dispersal-limited mammals with large area needs, as well as other species associated with late-successional forests in northern California.     

Using ecological forest site mapping for long-term habitat suitability assessments in wildlife conservation—Demonstrated for capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus)

Although key factors for vegetation composition and structure, site and soil condition have received little attention as predictors of habitat suitability in wildlife ecology to date. Using the example of capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), an indicator species for open, well-structured forest habitats, we evaluated the potential use of ecological forest site mapping for the identification of areas where the preferred vegetation structures are supported by the prevailing soil conditions. These are sites that we, therefore, expected to be of long-term relevance to the species.     

Characterisation of Afzelia africana Sm. habitat in the Lama forest reserve of Benin

A study was carried out in the Lama forest reserve of Benin to characterize the habitat of Afzelia africana Sm., an endangered multipurpose tree species (found in African humid, dry forests and woodlands), in order to define a sustainable management strategy for its conservation. An estimation of species density was done on 100 square plots of 1 ha each, while tree height and dbh of all the species were measured on subplots of 50 m × 30 m within the 1 ha plots. The regenerations of A. africana (dbh < 10 cm) were counted in the diagonal quadrats of the principal plots. Presence–absence data of the species was subjected to multidimensional scaling and results showed four vegetation communities including: young fallow, old fallow, typical dense forest and degraded dense forest. Significant differences were noted between the four communities with respect to dendrometric parameters of the species. High values of these parameters were noted for the species in typical dense forest (5.2 stems/ha, 66.7 cm, 17.9 m, 7.9 m²/ha and 38.8% for the tree-density, the mean diameter, the mean height, basal area and basal area contribution of the species, respectively) whereas the lowest values were obtained for the old preforest fallow as far as the mean diameter (59.7 cm), the mean height (15.7 m) and the basal area contribution (27.7%) of the species were concerned. In general, the basal area of A. africana in the over vegetation types was less than 3 m²/ha. No A. africana tree was found in the young preforest fallow while more than 80% of A. africana trees were found in the typical dense forest community. Stem diameter and height structures of the species in all the four communities showed a left dissymmetric Gaussian shape and were well adjusted to Weibull distribution.     

Tree mortality and habitat shifts in the regeneration trajectory underneath canopy of an old-growth subalpine forest

To better understand tree regeneration trajectories and the resultant coexistence of Abies with co-dominants, Picea jezoensis var. hondoensis, Tsuga diversifolia and Betula ermanii, in an old-growth subalpine forest, we investigated spatial mortality patterns during the regeneration of Abies mariesii and A. veitchii, which are abundant in the understory reflecting their shade tolerance. Regeneration of these Abies spp. from shaded understory to canopy status is affected by other canopy co-dominants. Snags of understory Abies spp. were common, suggesting that the primary mortality agent is suppression by the overstory. Although live, small Abies trees in the understory were positively associated with a Picea canopy, the long-term survival was reduced among Abies trees close to the canopy, suggesting that shading by large Picea in the overstory negatively affects understory Abies plants. The existence of shade-intolerant canopy co-dominants such as Picea and also Tsuga, which are larger and longer lived than the shade-tolerant Abies, may play an important role in preventing the Abies spp. from competitively displacing these other tree species, which are much rarer in the understory, though common in the canopy. Moreover, in spite of the fact that Betula canopies fostered recruitment and growth of Abies saplings, Abies showed no association with Betula canopy and their survival at later-stage was rather reduced near or beneath Betula canopies at the subsequent understory small tree stage. Based on spatially significant events related to tree death, this study detected such “habitat shifts” in the trajectory of tree regeneration. Accordingly, it can be concluded that careful consideration of the regeneration habitat is required for a fuller understanding of ecological processes in spatially complex old-growth forest systems.