美国公共牧草地法治管理进程的经验借鉴与若干启示

通过文献梳理的方式阐明了美国公共牧草地法治化管理进程,并以立法节点为依据,划分为应对草地退化、确立多用途利用与联邦所有制、调整放牧费制度、修正立法及完善政策4个阶段,详述了各阶段的矛盾冲突、治理目标及政策手段,并总结特征。研究发现,草地经历严重退化后,联邦政府积极治理,以立法确立了公有制下的多用途使用原则。法治进程中,分类管理、放牧费制度、公有制、土地资源调查、市场化探索贯穿始终,法治管理手段不断完善,形成了稳定的治理格局。从现代产权制度看,草原资源公有制对资本主义私有制国家亦是一种有效的产权管理探索形式,在私有草原之外,形成了相对完善的法理体系和有效的法治治理基础。尽管中美两国政治经济体制、产权结构不同,但美国公共牧草地管理历程依然为中国提供了较为丰富的经验借鉴,研究认为,中国应在草原国有的公有制原则下,强化草原生态环境保护的法治化;清查草地资源,实施产责明晰的分类分级管理,同时开展生态与民生效益监测;将草原生态补偿及草原重点生态工程纳入常规化法治管理;充分发挥市场作用,实现生态产品多元化供给。     

新疆牧区超载过牧对草地退化的影响分析

新疆草地退化现象严重，已成为制约草原畜牧业发展的主要障碍。通过建立一套草原退化影响因素评价指标体系，运用灰色相关分析方法，得出草地退化的最主要因素是草地放牧率，牧民的超载放牧行为是导致草原生态环境恶化的主要原因，为制定保护草地政策提供一定的现实依据。     

新疆牧区超载过牧对草地退化影响分析

新疆草地退化现象严重，已成为制约草原畜牧业发展的主要障碍。通过建立一套草原退化影响因素评价指标体系，运用灰色相关分析方法，得出草地退化的最主要因素是草地放牧率，牧民的超载放牧行为是导致草原生态环境恶化的主要原因，为制定保护草地政策提供一定的现实依据。     

政府决策和管理体制在草地健康发展中的作用

草地资源退化不能仅仅归谬于全球变化、人口压力和放牧强度的增加,政府的决策和现行的体制对草地的健康发展同样起到决定性的作用。如果没有合理的政策法规和有效的实施体制,单纯的技术管理往往不能根本改变目前草地退化的现状。从中国草地管理的发展历程及主要存在问题、草地科研体制与方向对草地生态系统的影响与作用、草地管理的组织机构以及美国草地管理政策启示等几个方面,系统分析了政府决策和体制对草地健康发展的影响,提出了促进草地可持续发展的一系列政策建议。     

政府决策和管理体制在草地健康发展中的作用

草地资源退化不能仅仅归谬于全球变化、人口压力和放牧强度的增加，政府的决策和现行的体制对草地的健康发展同样起到决定性的作用。如果没有合理的政策法规和有效的实施体制．单纯的技术管理往往不能根本改变目前草地退化的现状。从中国草地管理的发展历程及主要存在问题、草地科研体制与方向对草地生态系统的影响与作用、草地管理的组织机构以及美国草地管理政策启示等几个方面。系统分析了政府决策和体制对草地健康发展的影响，提出了促进草地可持续发展的一系列政策建议。     

草原管理与畜牧业持续发展

内蒙古有丰富的天然草地资源，但由于利用和管理不善，畜牧业难以持续发展。草地畜牧业遇到了草原退化、牧草数量和质量下降、畜产品数量少以及畜牧业抗灾能力弱四个问题。畜牧业可持续发展的策略和措施是，走生态牧业、增草增畜的发展道路，并采取草原有偿承包使用制度、核定草地载畜量、合理放牧、增加植被数量以及执行草原法等草原管理措施。只要加强草原管理，草原的生产潜力是较大的。     

草原法讲授提纲(在中央机关干部经济法讲座会上的报告) 第二讲 制定颁布《草原法》的目的和意义

草原法是调整草原经济关系的法律,是国家通过法律手段规定的关于草原的社会规范或者称人们对草原的行为规则。当代世界各国的草原立法,包括有关草原的所有制和租赁关系,草原的保护,草原的利用和建设,林间草地放牧管理,牧草种子经营管理等法规,是随着近代农业生产力的发展,草原经营和草原畜牧业由游牧的自然经济向科学的集约管理经济转化时产生和发展的。美国在本世纪初就有一些州制定了《家畜饲养土地法》,三十年代美     

浅谈贵南县草地退化现状及治理对策

通过对草地退化现状的调查分析表明，气候变化、盲目开荒、超载过牧、鼠虫危害、管理不当、乱砍乱挖、执法不严、非法征占用草原是造成草地退化的主要原因。加大执法力度，落实草场承包责任制，加快草地建设速度，合理利用草地，严格控制栽畜量、加强草原野生植物资源采集管理、规范草原流转行为是遏制草地退化的重要措施。     

联户放牧模式对退化草地治理的绩效分析

本研究旨在探讨联户放牧模式的概念、理论根源以及基于该模式对退化草原治理的实施效果，并针对当前草地管理模式存在的问题，提出未来草原管理政策的可行性建议。结果表明：面对草原退化，我国政府相继采取了草原管理政策，草原退化的趋势并没有被完全抑制。联户放牧模式的出现， 为遏制草原退化提供了一条创新途径，为实现草场高质量发展提供了实践视角。作为牧区地方治理的新模式，它虽然在一定程度上可以克服草原管理政策的缺陷，但仍缺乏国家政策的保护和政府的支持。 因此，在未来草地管理制度设计中应注重考虑 4 个方面：(1)牧区本土知识的应用；(2)新型职业牧民的培育；(3)基于自然解决方案的内容设计；(4)围栏拆建的科学性。     

肃南裕固族自治县草地利用现状及保护利用对策

通过对肃南县天然草地资源利用现状和存在问题的调查分析,提出了肃南县草地资源保护利用对策:一是加强宣传教育,提高全民合理利用草原、保护草原生态的意识.二是根据草场退化情况做好天然草地的综合管护.三是根据天然草地植被生长情况加强对草地实行季节性休牧制度.四是强化放牧+舍饲的管理制度.五是科学施策遏制草地毒害草蔓延.六是加大...     

防治沙尘暴须坚持草原自然资源可持续利用

开垦草原、过度农垦和撂荒、过度利用水资源、超采地下水,导致干旱区土地沙化、沙尘源面积扩大;草原持续超载过牧,滥采滥挖草原的植物资源,无序开发草原矿产资源,人为破坏草原植被,造成草原沙化;超越水土资源承载力,追求高产出的不当农业经营方式,违反自然规律的生态建设,造就了新的沙尘源,助长了沙尘暴的暴发。通过采用资源可持续利用技术、降低草原和土地利用强度、恢复干旱草原以牧为主的经营方式等措施,可以提高植被覆盖度,减少裸露旱作农田、撂荒地等沙尘源面积,从而减少沙尘暴的暴发次数,减轻其危害程度。     

Extent of Coterminous US Rangelands: Quantifying Implications of Differing Agency Perspectives

Rangeland extent is an important factor for evaluating critical indicators of rangeland sustainability. Rangeland areal extent was determined for the coterminous United States in a geospatial framework by evaluating spatially explicit data from the Landscape Fire and Resource Management Planning Tools (LANDFIRE) project describing historic and current vegetative composition, average height, and average cover through the viewpoints of the Natural Resources Inventory (NRI) administered by the Natural Resources Conservation Service and the Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program administered by the US Forest Service. Three types of rangelands were differentiated using the NRI definition encompassing rangelands, afforested rangelands, and transitory rangelands. Limitations in the FIA definition permitted characterization of only two rangeland types: rangeland and rangeland vegetation with a small patch size. These classes were similar to those from the NRI definition but differed in tree canopy cover threshold requirements. Estimated rangeland area resulting from the NRI- and FIA-LANDFIRE models were 268 and 207 Mha, respectively. In addition, the NRI-LANDFIRE model identified 19 Mha of afforested rangelands due principally to encroachment and increased density by species classified as trees belonging to the genera Quercus, Prosopis, and Juniperus. The biggest discrepancies between acreage estimates derived from NRI- and FIA-LANDFIRE models occurred in oak, pinyon-juniper, and mesquite woodlands. The differences in area estimates between the NRI and FIA perspectives demonstrate the need for development of unified, objective methods for determining rangeland extent that can be applied consistently to all rangelands regardless of ownership or jurisdiction. While the models and geospatial information developed here are useful for national-scale estimates of rangeland extent, they are subject to the limitations of the LANDFIRE data products.     

Conservation of Pattern and Process: Developing an Alternative Paradigm of Rangeland Management

This article examines the question of how well the rangeland management profession has served conservation of patterns and processes that support multiple ecosystem services. We examine the paradigms under which rangeland management operates and argue that our profession developed under the utilitarian paradigm with the primary goals of sustainable forage for livestock production. While optimization of multiple rangeland products and services has always been a consideration, a comprehensive set of principles have not be been developed to advance this concept. We argue that fire and grazing, often viewed as mere tools used for production goals, should rather be viewed as essential ecosystem processes. Rangeland management continues to operate under the utilitarian paradigm appropriate to societal values of the 20th century and by and large has failed to provide management guidance to reverse degradation of several highly valued ecosystem services. We support this argument with evidence that biodiversity has declined on rangelands in the past half century and that much of this decline is due to management goals that favor a narrow suite of species. The full suite of ecosystem services valued by society will only benefit by management for heterogeneity, which implies that there is no one goal for management and that landscape-level planning is crucial. Explicitly incorporating heterogeneity into state-and-transition models is an important advancement not yet achieved by our profession. We present new principles for rangeland management formed on the basis of conservation of pattern and process. While recognizing that many rangelands have significant deviations from historic plant communities and disturbance regimes, we suggest that management for conservation of pattern and process should focus on fire and grazing to the extent possible to promote a shifting mosaic across large landscapes that include patches that are highly variable in the amount of disturbance rather than the current goal of uniform moderate disturbance.     

Origin,Persistence, and Resolution of the Rotational Grazing Debate: Integrating Human Dimensions Into Rangeland Research

The debate regarding the benefits of rotational grazing has eluded resolution within the US rangeland profession for more than 60 yr. This forum examines the origin of the debate and the major reasons for its persistence in an attempt to identify common ground for resolution, and to search for meaningful lessons from this central chapter in the history of the US rangeland profession. Rotational grazing was a component of the institutional and scientific response to severe rangeland degradation at the turn of the 20th century, and it has since become the professional norm for grazing management. Managers have found that rotational grazing systems can work for diverse management purposes, but scientific experiments have demonstrated that they do not necessarily work for specific ecological purposes. These interpretations appear contradictory, but we contend that they can be reconciled by evaluation within the context of complex adaptive systems in which human variables such as goal setting, experiential knowledge, and decision making are given equal importance to biophysical variables. The scientific evidence refuting the ecological benefits of rotational grazing is robust, but also narrowly focused, because it derives from experiments that intentionally excluded these human variables. Consequently, the profession has attempted to answer a broad, complex question—whether or not managers should adopt rotational grazing—with necessarily narrow experimental research focused exclusively on ecological processes. The rotational grazing debate persists because the rangeland profession has not yet developed a management and research framework capable of incorporating both the social and biophysical components of complex adaptive systems. We recommend moving beyond the debate over whether or not rotational grazing works by focusing on adaptive management and the integration of experiential and experimental, as well as social and biophysical, knowledge to provide a more comprehensive framework for the management of rangeland systems.     

草原旅游对草地影响与管理

随着旅游事业的蓬勃发展,草原旅游业逐渐成为现代旅游的热点,人们通过自己的行为给草地旅游地及其环境带来各种影响,本文通过旅游对草地影响的分析,阐述了生态旅游的观点,对草地旅游地的管理与保护具有指导意义。     

Grazing Systems Do Not Affect Bird Habitat on a Sandhills Landscape

Grassland birds are declining faster than any other guild of birds in North America, in part because of degradation of their breeding habitat. Rangeland managers recommend increasing heterogeneity to improve biodiversity; however, on privately owned rangelands, beef production likely decreases heterogeneity on the landscape. One suggestion has been to use multiple grazing systems across a landscape to increase heterogeneity and provide benefits for avian biodiversity, but there is little research to support this recommendation. Thus, our goal was to examine heterogeneity and songbird abundance in relation to grazing systems used by private producers in a large, intact rangeland region. We measured vegetation structure and conducted avian surveys in the Nebraska Sandhills on 11 management units with five different grazing systems, including season-long continuous, deferred rotation, management intensive, dormant season only, and a fixed rotation. On each management unit we assessed the relationship between vegetation structure or songbird abundance and potential management effects, such as grazing system, stocking rate, and management intensity. Season of use and stocking rate were the most common sources of variation in vegetation structure and songbird abundance. Grazing system did not explain variation in vegetation structure or bird abundance, except for heterogeneity in live grass cover, litter cover, shrub cover, and abundance of field sparrows. Vegetation structure varied across the landscape we sampled, but the range of heterogeneity was narrow. Thus, managers should not assume that using a variety of grazing systems across a landscape will inevitably result in heterogeneity of vegetation structure. Rather, managers should focus on creating contrasting vegetation structure in large areas to increase large-scale heterogeneity. This may be achieved through the application of more extreme management practices (e.g., long-term heavy grazing and long-term rest or patch-burn grazing) so that a wider variety of vegetation composition and structure is available to support biodiversity.     

Short- and Long-Term Vegetation Change Related to Grazing Systems,Precipitation, and Mesquite Cover

Rangeland scientists struggle with how long rangeland experiments must continue in order to detect treatment effects, particularly in semiarid ecosystems characterized by slow responses and high spatiotemporal variability. We compared changes in eight grass and three shrub categories to grazing systems (yearlong vs. seasonal rotation with equivalent long-term stocking rates), and covariates (precipitation and mesquite [Prosopis velutina] gradients) over 12 yr (1972–1984) and 34 yr (1972–2006) on the Santa Rita Experimental Range, Arizona. We used split-plot analysis of variance, with year as the split, to make these comparisons. Grazing systems did not influence plant dynamics as shown by the lack of grazing system by year effect on all response variables in either time period. The absence of a detectable grazing effect on vegetation changes may be due to overriding influences of grazing intensity, pasture size, precipitation variability, and few replicates. Also, more time may be needed to detect the small accumulating and potentially temporary effects from grazing systems. The grazing system main effects present at the beginning and throughout the study suggest that pastures assigned to each grazing system had different potentials to support vegetation. Nearly twice the number of response variables were related to the precipitation covariate than to mesquite cover, but only about half of all the relationships were consistent between time periods. The struggle to know how long to observe before detecting a grazing system effect was not resolved with the additional 22 yr of observation because we cannot definitively reject that either more time is needed to detect small but cumulative effects or that the two grazing systems are not different.     

美国公共放牧地管理政策演进的历史经验

当初步遏制草地退化后,我国当前迫切需要对草地管理政策进行优化和调整,进而更好地通过草畜平衡和生态补贴实现生态保育和牧民利益的协调和可持续发展目标。长达90年的美国公共放牧地政策可以为我国调整和优化草地管理政策提供借鉴。美国经验表明,实现草地生态保育需要在社会共识、法律体系和行政管理等方面,牢固地树立和实现草地的多重功能和生态系统服务理念。进一步地,公有的草地产权制度是保障草地多重生态系统服务的法律前提,非牧产业发展是实现草地多重功能的经济基础,精细的行政管理是实现草地生产生态平衡的技术保障,多种利益主体参与是实现草地管理制度改革的活力来源。美国草地管理制度发展的曲折反复,也说明了生态管理政策的失效和调整,禁牧和监管强度的张弛反复,不同利益集团的矛盾诉求和博弈消长,都是草地治理中的正常情况。我国草地治理也可能经历复杂曲折的过程。在下一阶段,草地产权的优化、行政管理的精细化、牧民利益和生态保育目标的协调,是实现我国草地可持续治理的核心要务。