Mycorrhizal dependency of micropropagated argan tree (Argania spinosa): II. Mineral nutrition

The influence of V.A. mycorrhization on mineral nutrition of 2 clones ofArgania spinosa was studied with in-vitro micropropagated plantlets grown in confined medium under controlled conditions. Inoculation, which increased dry matter production by a factor of 4.5, also increased P concentration in the plant, especially in the leaves, and the mycorrhizal plants mobilized 15 times more P than control plants. N concentration was slightly lower in mycorrhizal plants, but total N content was 3 times higher. Uptake of micro elements was also affected, inoculation increasing plant Fe, Zn and Cu content. Mineral nutrition in the test clones seemed affected by root/shoot ratio and other genetically-related characteristics, such as Fe translocation efficiency.These results help us to understand how its deep mycorrhizal root system might allowArgania spinosa not only to grow in infertile arid areas but also to improve top-soil fertility by a litter effect.

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Résumé L'influence de la mycorhization V.A. sur la nutrition minérale de 2 clones d'Arganier (Argania spinosa) a été étudiée sur des plantules micropropagées in vitro poussant en conditions contrôlées. L'inoculation (qui augmentait la production de matière sèche d'un facteur 4,5) accroit également la teneur des plantes en phosphore, notamment dans les feuilles, et les plantes mycorhizées mobilisent 15 fois plus de phosphore que les plantes non inoculées. La teneur en azote est légèrement plus faible chez les plantes mycorhizées mais au total ces dernières exportent 3 fois plus d'azote. L'absorption des micro-éléments est aussi affectée par l'inoculation, qui accroit les teneurs des plantes en Fe, Zn et Cu. La nutrition minérale des deux clones étudiés semble affectée par le rapport racines/parties aériennes et d'autres caractéristiques génétiques, comme l'efficacité de translocation du fer. Ces résultats nous permettent de comprendre en quoi son système racinaire profond et mycorhizé permet à l'Arganier non seulement de pousser dans des zones arides aux sols pauvres, mais aussi d'améliorer la fertilité des couches supérieures du sol par l'effet litière.

     

Protective effect of saponins from Argania spinosa against free radical-induced oxidative haemolysis

Saponins from Argania spinosa at a non-haemolytic concentration diminish by 53.2% erythrocyte haemolysis induced by free radicals. 2 mM aspirin and acetaminophen diminish by 75% and 68% , respectively, erythrocyte haemolysis induced by free radicals, while 0.3 muM vitamin E shows no significant antioxidant activity. Interestingly, a combination of 1 mg/l of A. spinosa saponins and vitamin E at 0.3 muM resulted in a 68% level of protection against free radical-induced erythrocyte haemolysis, which may suggest that A. spinosa saponins enhance the antioxidant effect of vitamin E. In contrast, no synergic effect was observed for acetaminophen (2 mM) when in combination with vitamin E (0.3 muM). These results demonstrate the antioxidant properties of saponins from A. spinosa and their ability to potentate the antioxidant effect of vitamin E.     

Growth and Mycorrhizal Dependency of Acacia mangium Willd. Inoculated with Three Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Lateritic Soil

Three VA-mycorrhizal fungi; Glomus occultum, Glomus aggregatum (local isolates) and G. mosseae (strain from Bangalore, India) were inoculated to assess their effect on growth of Acacia mangium in lateritic soil. All inoculations enhanced growth with respect to shoot height, root diameter, leaf area, chlorophyll content and biomass of A. mangium significantly compared to uninoculated control seedlings. G. occultum proved most efficient among the three. The mycorrhizal dependency factor indicated that the growth of A. mangium was 57% dependent on G. occultum, 47% on G. mosseae and 46% on Glomus aggregatum.     

板栗接种食用菌根真菌的菌根化效果及对幼苗促生效应的研究

[目的]通过板栗幼苗人工接种食用菌根菌固体菌剂,分析其对板栗幼苗生长指标和根系菌根化的效果,以验证大红菇(菌株编号2014-10)、红绒盖牛肝菌(菌株编号2014-14)和美味牛肝菌(菌株编号50559)这3种食用菌根菌固体菌剂作为板栗接种体的有效性及其促生效应,为进一步探索"板栗食用菌根菌新型经济林栽培模式"提供基础。[方法]在板栗播种时分别接种上述3种食用菌根菌固体菌剂,并设空白作对照。对当年生幼苗苗高、地径、根系干质量、侧根数、侧根总长、幼苗侵染率、吸收根侵染率等指标进行调查和分析,并制作菌根石蜡切片进行微观结构观察。[结果]表明:(1)上述3种食用菌根菌在人工接种下均能侵染板栗幼苗根系,平均幼苗菌根化率分别达95.8%、87.0%和96.7%,平均吸收根菌根化率分别达57%、53%和50%,达较高的侵染强度;经微观观察,板栗幼苗根系均形成典型的菌根结构——菌丝套和哈蒂氏网。(2)与对照幼苗相比,3个菌种处理幼苗的平均苗高分别提高32.5%、24.0%和22.7%,平均地径分别提高19.4%、14.1%和5.0%,差异显著(P0.05);平均根系干质量分别提高18.9%、25.3%和14.1%,平均侧根数分别提高16.0%、14.1%和12.1%,平均侧根总长分别提高26.8%、28.9%和44.8%,差异极显著(P0.01)。[结论](1)上述供试食用菌根菌均与板栗根系建立了共生关系,幼苗菌根化效果良好,吸收根菌根化强度高,形成了菌根的典型结构,即菌丝套和哈蒂氏网,验证了上述菌种固体菌剂的有效性,认为其可以作为板栗食用菌根菌栽培的接种体而用于生产实践,为探索"板栗食用菌根菌新型经济林栽培模式"提供了基础。(2)上述供试菌种接种后,对板栗幼苗各项主要生长指标均有不同程度的促进作用,说明上述食用菌根菌对板栗幼苗具有显著的促生效应。     

The argan tree (Argania spinosa) in Morocco: Propagation by seeds, cuttings and in-vitro techniques

In South-western Morocco, the argan tree (Argania spinosa) is basis of a traditional agroforestry system. However, this system is no longer at equilibrium and there is an urgent need to renovate it. The natural reproduction of the tree has become difficult, and most attempts of artificial regeneration have failed. We have assessed three different propagation methods: seedlings, cuttings, and in-vitro micro-propagation. Our experiments, involving several seed collections, showed that germination occurred easily when using young (< 12 months) and large seeds (nut weight > 3 g). Nuts with thin walls germinated better than nuts with thicker walls. Sterilization prevented microbial contamination and improved germination. Vegetative propagation of the argan tree by cuttings was tried using lignified cuttings collected from adult trees or young stems from managed stockplants (three years old). Rooting rate seems to be dependent on genotype, and the best results were obtained from young stems sterilized to avoid fungal contamination. The success of in-vitro micro-propagation is also highly genotype-dependant. We developed a modified medium enabling up to 80–95% rooting rate for some clones. However, other clones were still recalcitrant. Whatever the propagation method used, special attention must be paid to the architecture and growth of the root system. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Shoot production through cutting culture and micrografting from mature tree explants inAcacia tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne subsp.raddiana (Savi) Brenan

Shoot propagation from mature tree explants ofAcacia tortilis subsp.raddiana, a tropical tree legume, was studied. The effects of (i) the size of cuttings and (ii) a recut treatment of the donor trees, on axillary bud growth from multinodal horticultural cuttings are reported. Apices from seedlings, axillary buds from young lignified branches of mature trees, and axillary buds obtained through in vitro axillary branching from microcuttings isolated onto mature trees were all successfully micrografted on seedling rootstocks. A sterilization procedure for field explants is reported. Propagation via cuttings and via micrografting are discussed with regard to rejuvenation of mature donor trees.     

Analysis of essential oils from wild and micropropagated plants of damiana (Turnera diffusa)

Damiana is a medicinal plant with many traditional uses and a reputation as an aphrodisiac. Essential oils produced by this plant are used in traditional medicine, and for the preparation of liquors and tea. The composition of essential oils from wild damiana, plants grown with micropropagated methods involving cell suspension, and explants in solid medium, is presented. Relevant differences are observed in oils coming from wild and micropropagated plants, where micropropagated plants being more uniform with respect to quality and quantity. The most abundant constituents of the oils were caryophyllene oxide, caryophyllene, delta-cadinene, elemene and 1,8-cineol.     

Comparisons between generalized and specific tree biomass functions as applied to tropical ash (Fraxinus uhdei)

Allometric equations were generatedby harvesting tropical ash (Fraxinus uhdei(Wenzig) Lingelsh) trees growing on organic uplandssoils in the island of Hawaii. One of these equationswas used to estimate aboveground biomass of ten maturestands in the same area. Results indicated that theequation developed in situ, equations for white ash(Fraxinus americana L.), and generalizedfunctions for temperate and tropical forests, providedrelatively similar biomass estimates. Averagedifferences between biomass estimates from the testedequations (excluding the one for moist tropicalforests) and the function generated in situ rangedfrom 10 to 24%. One of the equations for white ashhad the lowest sum of residuals followed by thegeneralized equation for temperate forests. Theresults suggested commonality among biomass estimatesand, therefore, among relationships between treedimensions probably because most of the abovegroundtree biomass is in stem and branches, and thesecompartments are more stable than foliage mass. Equations to estimate commercial biomass and leaf areaof tropical ash are also provided.     

Effect of Lecanicillium muscarium on Eretmocerus sp. nr. furuhashii (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), a parasitoid of Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

Pathogenicity of Lecanicillium muscarium, against Eretmocerus sp. nr. furuhashii (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), was investigated under laboratory conditions to determine if the fungal infection of the whitefly host can effect the survival, longevity and fecundity of female parasitoid. The results indicated that the number of parasitized larvae surviving a L. muscarium treatment after 6 days of oviposition decreased with increasing concentrations of L. muscarium and in later stages of development (12 days post oviposition) were not affected by fungal application. There were no significant differences on adult parasitoid survivorship after 7 days among all treatments. Maximum survivorship (73.33%) was observed for control and it was minimum (60%) at 1 × 10⁸ conidia/ml. L. muscarium showed a non significant effect on longevity and next offsprings of female parasitoids. The percentage emergence of parasitoids from the whitefly nymphs produced by the females emerged from treated pupae was almost similar. Maximum emergence (69.77%) was observed at 1 × 10⁶ conidia/ml and it was lowest (61.02%) at conidial concentration of 1 × 10⁸ conidia/ml. Maximum longevity of adult Eretmocerus sp. emerging from whitefly nymphs when treated after 12 days of postoviposition was observed for 1 × 10⁵ conidia/ml having a mean value of 5 days whereas the lowest longevity was 4.9 days observed at 1 × 10⁸ conidia/ml. The results mentioned above indicate that the interaction among biocontrol agents is positive to a greater extent with minimum risk hazards.     

The use of Sesbania (Sesbania rostrata) and urea in lowland rice production in Sierra Leone

The suitability of sesbania (Sesbania rostrata) as green manure for lowland rice was evaluated in the Inland Valley Swamp (IVS) of Sierra Leone, and attempts were made to identify appropriate methods of its management in combination with urea. Sesbania — rice intercropping and sesbania — rice rotation treatments were compared with 60 kg N ha^–1 applied in two splits and 30 kg N ha^–1 as basal or top dressed to rice grown in the two cropping systems. The ¹⁵N isotope dilution technique was used to quantify N uptake from the green manure and urea and its utilization by rice. Rotating 40–50 days old sesbania two days prior to transplanting and top dressing with 30 kg N ha^–1 as urea at nine weeks after transplanting gave highest rice grain yield (121% over the control without sesbania and urea). However intercropping sesbania with rice tended to increase N uptake and N fertilizer utilization more than the rotation treatments. The higher grain yield of rice in rotation despite lower N uptake than intercropping shows that other effects than only N explain the beneficial effect of sesbania on rice.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Fallow enrichment of a traditional slash/mulch system in southern Costa Rica: comparisons of biomass production and crop yield

The slash and mulch system of frijol tapado or covered bean is a pre-hispanic system of bean production found throughout much of Central America. However, land use pressures have forced farmers to shorten the traditional fallow period, thus resulting in decreasing productivity. A potential solution is to enrich the fallow by using leguminous nitrogen-fixing trees. The enriched fallow systems evaluated in this study include both single and mixed species treatments: 1) Erythrina poeppigiana; 2) Calliandra colothrysus; 3) Gliricidia sepium; 4) Inga edulis; 5) Inga edulis and Erythrina poeppigiana; 6) Inga edulis and Calliandra calothrysus; and 7) Inga edulis and Gliricidia sepium. Biomass production of the fallow vegetation is shown to be of greater quality and quantity in all fallow enrichment treatments. However, bean yields did not show a significant response to the fallow enrichment treatments.     

Relationships between mass mortality of two oak species (Quercus mongolica Turcz. var.grosseserrata Rehd. et Wils. andQ. serrata Thunb.) and infestation by and reproduction ofPlatypus quercivorus (Murayama) (coleoptera: Platypodidae)

This study investigated the number of adults ofPlatypus quercivorus (Murayama) captured on host oak (Quercus spp.) trees, the attack density (the number of entry holes per 100 cm²), and the number of emerging adults to clarify the relationships between the beetle’s colonization on trees in oak stands and tree mortality. The initial attack ofP. quercivorus, which was the most intense attack, was observed on most living trees simultaneously. Although some attacked trees died within the year of the attack or in the next year, a high density of attack did not usually cause the death of host trees. Surviving trees suffered low levels of consecutive attack after the initial attack. BecauseP. quercivorus successfully produced broods only in the dead trees, the population of the insect seems to be maintained only in stands where oak mortality occurs. However, the adults that landed on most of the surviving trees appeared unable to reproduce probably due to degradation of host quality. Thus, oak mortality probably ceases within 3 or 4 years after the start of infestation in a stand, with subsequent reductions in population density of the borer.     

Evidence for anthropic selection of the Sheanut tree (Vitellaria paradoxa)

The Sheanut tree (Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn.), a multi-purpose species highly valued for the oil obtained from its seeds, is commonly maintained in the semi-arid parklands of sub-Saharan West Africa. An inventory in the West Gonja District, Northern Region, Ghana, revealed that on intensively farmed land this species constituted 79.7 ± 7.2% (Basal area = 2.19 ± 0.64 m² ha⁻¹) of the woody biomass, on low intensity farmland 84.2 ± 10.0% (2.16 ± 0.57 m² ha⁻¹) and only 10.2 ± 3.3% (0.92 ± 0.23 m² ha⁻¹) in unmanaged woodland, with similar environmental characteristics. No significant differences were found between total Sheanut tree densities on different land use intensities, although as a proportion of all trees surveyed, large trees were more common on farmed land. Participatory surveys revealed that these populations are a direct result of anthropic selection as local farmers eliminate unwanted woody species on farmland, leaving only those Sheanut trees that meet criteria based on spacing, size, growth, health, age and yield. Characteristics that could affect population dynamics during traditional management and harvesting including short viability seeds and cryptogeal germination are also discussed with reference to unconscious selection. Tree improvement is currently constrained, as true to type varieties are difficult to propagate. It is proposed that Sheanut trees on farmland are semi-domesticated having been subject to long-term anthropic selection during cycles of traditional fallow and crop cultivation. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Comparative study on drought resistance ofLarix olgensis Henry andPinus sylvestris var.mongolica (I)

Water potential (ϕ w) and net photosynthetic rate (Pn) ofLarix olgensis andPinus. sylvestris var.mongolica decreased with the decrease of soil water content. ϕ w and Pn ofL. olgensis changed hardly during the first 9 days after stopping watering, then decreased sharply at the 10th day Pn ofP. sylvestris varmongolica decreased slightly during the first 8 days, then decreased sharply at the 9th day. Their respiration rate, chlorophyll content and their a/b ratio changed hardly. The following 3 conclusions were obtained and discussed exhaustively. (1) ϕ w can be used to direct watering as a sensitive index of judging whetherL. olgensis andP. sylvestris var.mongolica lacking water. (2) The decrease of Pn ofL. olgensis andP. sylvestris var.mongolica when drought had nothing to do with chlorophyll. (3)P. sylvestris var.mongolica had morphological drought resistance, while Lolgensis had physiological drought resistance, and their drought resistance was discussed comparatively first time.     

Crown development and biomass production of pollardedErythrina berteroana,E. fusca andGliricidia sepium in the humid tropical lowlands of Costa Rica

Leguminous trees are widely used to support climbers such as black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) and vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Andr.), to provide shade to crops and to maintain soil fertility. Pruning or pollarding provides the means to maximize benefits from the trees, particularly through the production of biomass as a soil amendment. At the same time, excessive shading is reduced. In order to quantify the degree of shading of black pepper by the support trees during a six-month pollarding cycle, this study monitored crown development (part I) and light transmission (part II) of three widely used species,Erythrina berteroana Urban,E. fusca Loureiro andGliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Steud.The two sites were in the humid Atlantic Lowlands of Talamanca, southern Costa Rica (mean annual rainfall 2460 mm, no distinct dry season), on alluvial soils (typic Tropofluvents) with low levels of K, P, Mn and Zn. Two-year-old trees, that had been established from cuttings as live supports for black pepper, were used for the study. They were pollarded twice per year. The variables measured/estimated monthly were: stem diameter at breast height (dbh); height, foliated height, depth, diameter, leaf area and leaf biomass of crowns; length, diameter, number and inclination of branches. Leaf nutrient contents were also determined.Following pollarding,G. sepium was the first to resprout, followed byE. berteroana andE. fusca. G. sepium with its few but erect and long branches had slender, columnar crowns. while those ofE. berteroana andE. fusca were more spherical. Four months after pollarding,G. sepium started shedding leaves at the base of its branches. Average crown diameter after six months were 2.2 m forE. berteroana, 1.9 m forE. fusca and 1.5 m forG. sepium; average crown depths after six months were 2.8 m, 2.1 m, and 2.7 m, respectively, for the three species. For 1600 trees ha^–1 and two prunings per year, foliar biomass production from prunings alone (i.e., without litter fall), calculated from regressions with length and basal diameter of branches as independent variables, was 3.8 t, 3.4 t and 2.3 t dry matter ha^–1 a^–1 forE. berteroana, E. fusca andG. sepium, respectively; these estimates agreed well with measured values. The corresponding N contents were 146 kg, 124 kg and 90 kg, respectively. While N contributions from the prunings exceeded 50% of the fertilizer recommendations for black pepper, the contributions were <10% for P and <40% for K. Linear regressions between leaf area and branch dimensions, and quadratic regressions between foliar biomass and crown diameter showed high coefficients of determination (0.83>R ²>0.99). Correlations between foliar biomass, dbh, and dbh increments were generally weak. Conclusions from the study appear to be valid also for other agroforestry systems where the same species are planted under similar ecological conditions for reasons other than as live supports.

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Resumen Los árboles leguminosos se usan frecuentamente como soportes vivos para plantas trepadoras como pimienta negra (Piper nigrum L.) y vainilla (Vanilla planifolia Andr.), para dar sombra y para reducir el desgaste de los suelos. La poda de los árboles reduce la cantidad mantener la fertilidad de sombra y produce biomasa que sirve como enmiendas. Con el objectivo de cuantificar el grado del sombreado de pimienta negra por los árboles durante un cíclo de poda de seis meses, se monitoreó en este estudio el desarrollo de la copa (parte I) y la transmisión de luz (parte II) de tres especies usados como soportes vivos:Erythrina berteroana Urban,E. fusca Loureiro yGliricidia sepium (Jacq) Steud.Los dos sitios estan en la zona tropical húmeda de Talamanca Baja, en el sureste de Costa Rica (precipitación promedia 2460 mm, sin estación seca) en suelos aluviales (Typic Tropofluvents) y pobres en K, P, Mn y Zn. Los árboles fueron establecidos de estacas. Cuando este estudio empezó, los árboles tenían dos años de edad y fueron podados dos veces por año. Los parámetros medidos ó estimados mensualmente fueron: diámetro del tronco a la altura del pecho (DAP); altura, altura foliada, profundidad, diámetro, área foliar y biomasa foliar de las copas; largo, diámetro, número y inclinación de las ramas. Además se determinó el contenido de nutrientes de las hojas.Despues de la poda,G. sepium fue el primero en rebrotar, seguido porE. berteroana yE. fusca. G. sepium con sus ramas escasas pero largas y erectas, formó una copa delgada y columnar, mientras que las copas deE. berteroana yE. fusca fueron más esféricas. Cuatro meses después de la poda,G. sepium empezó a perder las hojas en la base de sus ramas. El promedio del diámetro de la copa después de seis meses fue de 2.2 m paraE. berteroana, 1.9 m paraE. fusca y 1.5 m paraG. sepium; el promedio de la profundidad de la copa después de seis meses fú de 2.8 m, 2.1 m y 2.7 m, respectivamente para las tres especies. Para 1600 árboles ha^–1 y dos podas por año, la producción estimada de biomasa foliar de la poda (sin tomar en cuenta la hojarasca caída antes), calculada de regresiónes con el largo y el diámetro basal de las ramas como variables independientes, fue de 3.8 t, 3.4 t y 2.3 t de matéria seca ha^–1 a^–1 paraE. berteroana, E. fusca yG. sepium, respectivamente; estos valores calculados concordaron bien con valores medidos. El contenido de N correspondiente fué de 146 kg, 124 kg, y 90 kg, respectivamente. Mientras que la contribución de N procedente de las podas excedió 50% de una recomendación de fertilización común para pimienta negra, la contribución de P fue inferior al 10%, y menos del 40% para K. Regresiones lineales entre área foliar y las dimensiones de la ramas, y regresiones cuadraticas entre biomasa foliar y el diámetro de la copa mostraron altos coeficientes de determinación (0.83>R ²>0,99). Las correlaciones entre biomasa foliar, el DAP y incrementos del DAP fueron generalmente débiles. Las conclusiones de éste estudio parecen válidas tambien para sistemas agroforestales donde las especies estudiadas son plantadas bajo condiciones ecológicas similares para propósitos diferentes de como soportes vivos.

     

Growth and nut production of black walnut in relation to site, tree type and stand conditions in south-central United States

Black walnut (Juglans nigra) is a prime tree species for agroforestry practices in the United States providing highly prized wood and nuts for human consumption and wildlife. In 54 black walnut stands in south central United States, the site index (i.e., mean dominant height [DH], at age 25 years) ranged between 5.2 and 21.4 m, and was independent of stand density. There were no differences in height and stem diameter (DBH) growth rates between stands with improved varieties and native stock. Most stands were in a “free growth” stage because of either early age or wide spacing. Mean annual increments in DBH and height were positively related both for improved varieties and native stock. Understory competition had a substantial detrimental effect on DH. In a 26 year-old stand, trees growing within Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis) had a site index 5 m greater than trees growing within tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea). Predicted nut yields in 2002 varied between 0 and 1370 kg of hulled nuts per ha. Improved varieties had, in general, higher nut yields than predicted from a nut yield-DBH equation developed for individual trees. Nut yields were highly variable both within and among stands, and were related to DBH in native stock but not in improved varieties.     

Maternal size dependency of ovariole number in Dastarcus helophoroides (Coleoptera: Colydiidae)

To evaluate the relationship between reproductive potential and body size of Dastarcus helophoroides Faimaire (synonym Dastarcus longulus Sharp), 17 adult females obtained under outdoor conditions were dissected individually to count the ovarioles and determine the mean size of mature eggs in ovarioles and oviducts following the measurements of fresh body weight, body length, maximum body width, maximum width of prothorax, and elytral length. Each female had two ovaries. The number of ovarioles per female varied from 36 to 154 depending on maternal body length. However, the mean length and width of mature eggs were independent of body length. There were no differences in any body-size traits and allometry between the sexes.     

Effect of spacing on growth and biomass production of Gliricidia sepium (jacq) walp in an alley cropping system in Sierra Leone

This paper describes a study into the influences of spacing on the early performance and biomass production of Gliricidia sepium in an alley cropping system in southern Sierra Leone. Four between-row spacings of 2, 4, 6 and 8 m were combined with three within-row spacings (0.25, 0.50 and 1.00m) in a split plot experimental design.Survival, tree height and leaf nitrogen content were not affected by between- or within-row spacings. For the other parameters measured, namely root-collar diameter, branch production, total biomass and nitrogen yields per hectare, it was found that for equivalent tree densities, the lower the rectangularity of planting, the better the performance of the individual trees, and consequently the greater the yields per hectare.Total biomass production per unit area was, expectedly, greatest where the spacings between hedgerows were closest, while production per plant decreased with closer within-row spacings. The total fresh and dry weights of leaves and stems, as well as leaf nitrogen yields per unit area were strongly influenced by between-row spacing and less so by within-row spacing.     

Modelling agroforestry systems of cacao (Theobroma cacao) with laurel (Cordia alliodora) and poro (Erythrina poeppigiana) in Costa Rica II. Cacao and wood production,litter production and decomposition

During 7 years (1979–1985) cacao harvests (beans and husks) have been recorded for the agroforestry systems ofTheobroma cacao underCordia alliodora andErythrina poeppigiana shade trees. The mean oven dry cacao yields were 626 and 712 kg.ha^–1.a^–1 cocoa beans underC. alliodora andE. poeppigiana respectively. Harvests have gradually increased over the years and the plantation has now reached maturity.Annual extraction of N, P, K, Ca and Mg in fruits, which is relatively small, was calculated on the basis of chemical analyses. The following average values were found (kg.ha^–1.a^–1): At the age of 8 years, theC. alliodora trees have reached 26.7 cm diameter (DBH) and 14.0 m in height. Mean annual growth (from age 5 to 7) is 14.6 m³.ha^–1.a^–1.Natural plant residue production has been measured for 4 years (Nov. 1981–Oct. 1985). UnderE. poeppigiana it has reached a value of 8.91 t.ha^–1.a^–1 and underC. alliodora 7.07 t.ha^–1.a^–1. The shade trees have contributed 57 and 47% respectively. Transference and decomposition rates are high and important in the nutrient cycles.The nutrient content of the litter was analysed and corresponding average yearly transfers were (kg.ha^–1.a^–1): For part I see Vol. 4, No. 3, 1986.Agroforestry Project, CATIE/GTZ (Tropical Agricultural Research and Training Center/Gesselschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit), Turrialba, Costa Rica     

Modelling agroforestry systems of cacao (Theobroma cacao) with laurel (Cordia alliodora) and poro (Erythrina poeppigiana) in Costa Rica II. Cacao and wood production,litter production and decomposition

During 7 years (1979–1985) cacao harvests (beans and husks) have been recorded for the agroforestry systems ofTheobroma cacao underCordia alliodora andErythrina poeppigiana shade trees. The mean oven dry cacao yields were 626 and 712 kg.ha⁻¹.a⁻¹ cocoa beans underC. alliodora andE. poeppigiana respectively. Harvests have gradually increased over the years and the plantation has now reached maturity. Annual extraction of N, P, K, Ca and Mg in fruits, which is relatively small, was calculated on the basis of chemical analyses. The following average values were found (kg.ha⁻¹.a⁻¹): At the age of 8 years, theC. alliodora trees have reached 26.7 cm diameter (DBH) and 14.0 m in height. Mean annual growth (from age 5 to 7) is 14.6 m³.ha⁻¹.a⁻¹. Natural plant residue production has been measured for 4 years (Nov. 1981–Oct. 1985). UnderE. poeppigiana it has reached a value of 8.91 t.ha⁻¹.a⁻¹ and underC. alliodora 7.07 t.ha⁻¹.a⁻¹. The shade trees have contributed 57 and 47% respectively. Transference and decomposition rates are high and important in the nutrient cycles. The nutrient content of the litter was analysed and corresponding average yearly transfers were (kg.ha⁻¹.a⁻¹): For part I see Vol. 4, No. 3, 1986. Agroforestry Project, CATIE/GTZ (Tropical Agricultural Research and Training Center/Gesselschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit), Turrialba, Costa Rica