Formal apparatus of soil classification

Mathematical tools that may be applied for soil classification purposes are discussed. They include the evaluation of information contained in particular soil attributes, the grouping of soil objects into a given (automatically determined) number of classes, the optimization of the classification decisions, and the development of the models and rules (algorithms) used to classify soil objects. The algorithms of multivariate statistical methods and cluster analysis used for solving these problems are described. The major attention is paid to the development of the systems of informative attributes of soil objects and their classes and to the assessment of the quality of the classification decisions. Particular examples of the solution of the problems of soil classification with the use of formal mathematical methods are given. It is argued that the theoretical and practical problems of classification in science cannot find objective solutions without the application of the modern methods of information analysis. The major problems of the numerical taxonomy of the soil objects described in this paper and the appropriate software tools for their solution should serve as the basis for the creation of not only formal soil classification systems but also the theory of soil classification.     

The particle-size distribution in soils: Problems of the methods of study,interpretation of the results,and classification

The analysis of literature sources and a database on soil physical properties collected by the Department of Soil Physics and Amelioration of Soils of the Faculty of Soil Science of Moscow State University made it possible to compare three major constituents of the particle-size distribution analysis (PSDA): (a) the classification of soil separates with respect to their sizes and the classification of soil textures, (b) the procedures used to prepare soil samples for the PSDA, and (c) the specificity of the determination of the particle-size distribution by different methods. It was shown that there are good physical and statistical grounds for the conversion of data on the particle-size distribution from the Russian classification system into other systems. Much larger problems are related to the pretreatment of soil samples for the PSDA. The diversity of existing methods, classification schemes, and technical devices based on different physical principles (sedimentation and laser diffractometry) should be taken into account in the analysis and quantitative conversion of particle-size distribution data from a given classification system into another system. The Russian classification of soil textures and soil particle-size groups developed by N.A. Kachinskii has certain advantages and can be easily converted into other systems. In the choice of a particular system, it is important to take into account the goals of the study. Agreement between soil scientists concerning the major constituents of the PSDA has to be reached.     

Bodensystematik und Bodenklassifikation Teil I: Grundbegriffe

Soil systematics and classification systems Part I: Fundamentals Soil‐ordering systems are primarily based and developed on one of two underlying principles: They are either categorized according to soil‐forming processes, or the formation of categories develops by chosen parameters. This perspective has already been established in the literature, though it is often confusing as many terms are defined and applied differently. In this contribution, the various definitions of systematics, classification, taxonomy, and identification will be clearly differentiated and summarized. The core of our work is to clearly define and contrast three terms: systematics, classification, and identification. Systematics is the fundamental scientific and deductive ordering of objects into systematic units. The purpose of this approach is to organize the entire spectrum of knowledge within a discipline into a transparent and manageable form. Classification, in direct contrast to systematics, is goal‐oriented and an inductive ordering of objects. Thus, the ordering scheme consists of classes which are clearly parameterized. Identification is the ordering of new objects into an already existing systematics or classification system. Close attention is paid to both the differences and the similarities between a systematics and a classification system, especially pertaining to their practical applications. The identification requires that the category‐forming characteristics can be measured (e.g., for soil systematics, these are the soil‐forming processes and factors). Currently, it is unfortunately not feasible to objectively quantify most soil‐forming processes. Thus, most attempts at categorizing soils by systematics are hypothetical and highly subjective in nature. The resulting identification derived from the soil systematics approach is open to questions and contestable, since a graded measuring system does not yet exist to verify these determinations. In contrast, a soil‐classification system does allow an objective soil‐profile identification, although such systems are conceived pragmatically and designed for a practical purpose (e.g., not scientifically based on process intensities). Unfortunately, such a classification system cannot be applied as a universal scientific categorization system due to this method of conception. Both categorization approaches are required in soil science in order to satisfy both the practical and the scientific aspects of the field. However, substantial research must be done to complete and verify systematics. The only viable short‐term solution is through the development of a graded classification system where the categories of the system are directly derived from the current systematics approach. In the long run both the exact investigation and the detailed modeling of the soil‐forming processes are inevitable.     

Dualism of the major notions of soil classification

The dualism of notions is a common form of our perception of the world. Thus, the notion of a classification system actually includes two complementary parts: taxonomy and meronymy. Taxonomy describes the structure of taxonomic units (taxa) and their relationships, whereas meronymy deals with the structure of the archetypes and meronyms (parts of the whole) composing them and linked by associative relations. An archetype can be defined as a generalized image consisting of meronyms that can be definitely described by a set of characteristics. Each archetype in meronymy has a corresponding taxon in taxonomy. The notions of the object of classification and the particular objects (things) representing it are explained. The notions of soil objects are somewhat different and depend on the goals and kinds of classification (conceptual, physical, or imaginable). Substantive (natural) classifications that encompass the entire set of conceivable objects (entirety) can be referred to as intensional classifications. They should be distinguished from extensional classifications dealing with a particular group of objects (data) and aimed at their arrangement in a convenient way. Extensional soil classification systems are those systems that actually arrange the lists of known soils into some order according to the rules formulated by their authors.     

Tectology of soil megasystems: Universal principles of organization and analysis of data

General concepts of tectology—the universal organization science—are discussed. It is shown that some of them can be applied for the formal analysis of visual images of soil systems obtained at different levels of their organization—from photos of thin sections to soil maps—and the corresponding attribute data. The structure of visual and attribute data at the level of thin sections and the methods of their analysis do not differ from those applied upon the analysis of soil cartographic materials. In particular, this concerns the procedures for data classification—the universal tool to analyze empirical data and to generate various hypotheses. These procedures include the methods of multivariate statistics and data convolution, the development of systems of information indices, the development of hierarchical and/or ordinate structures of soil objects, etc. Modern information technologies, including data bases and geographic information systems with solid mathematical support, make it possible to advance the ideas of tectology with the aim to improve the efficiency of theoretical and applied studies in soil science.     

基于规则引擎的土壤类型自动检索的研究

定量化的土壤系统分类体系的建立推动了土壤类型自动检索的研究。但以往研究并未关注土壤系统分类体系仍需不断修订的现状,所开发系统的推理代码与知识规则通常互相绑定,当知识规则改变时,推理代码需要重新开发,导致已有的系统被弃用,这阻碍了土壤类型自动检索系统的推广和应用。针对上述问题,以《中国土壤系统分类检索》(第三版)为基础,建立了基于RuleML语言的、可随时修改和扩展的规则库。然后利用规则引擎工具NxBRE,使土壤类型的检索规则与推理过程相分离,知识规则的改变不需要重新编写推理过程代码,并最终实现了土壤类型的自动检索。     

江苏省如皋市土系及其生产性能和生态环境特征

以江苏省如皋市为例,在收集第二次土壤普查资料和已有的研究成果基础上,经过野外土壤观察和调查、土壤基本理化性质和微量元素性质分析,进行了该市土系划分及其生产性能和生态环境特征的研究。研究确定了土系划分的原则和依据、特征土层等,划分出9个土系。各土系土壤基本理化和微量元素性质的差异很好地验证了土系划分的可靠性。各土系在颗粒组成、化学性质、养分性质、微量元素含量等方面均具有显著差异,反映出各土系独特的生产性能和生态环境特征。     

基于本体的水稻栽培知识库构建及应用

在人工智能领域（AI）中,Ontology作为知识表示和知识组织的主要工具,能有效地对知识进行系统化的组织和表示,这种结构化知识表示有利于解决信息检索、资源组织等。以构建水稻栽培学知识库为依托,研究了本体在该领域的构建原则、方法等,通过对相关的分类体系确立、属性定义、实例确定,以及本体存储等各个部分进行研究,详细地阐述了本体信息的结构组织体系的确立与相关知识及其应用的全过程。     

Soil mineralization: An emergent process?

This paper argues that soil mineralization should be seen as an emergent process. While it is effecting mineralization the soil population shows many of the characteristics of recognised emergent systems such as ant colonies and slime moulds. In particular, the whole is more than the sum of the parts, and the system shows clear evidence of bottom-up organization. Furthermore, the ‘quorum sensing’ recently discovered in soil and other bacteria strongly suggests that chemical signalling plays a part among the soil population, as it does in other biological emergent systems. Emergent behaviour has consequences for measuring and modelling mineralization. The idea that the whole is more than the sum of the parts suggests that measurements must be made at a scale that includes all the parts, while the bottom-up organization implies that there is no controlling parameter on which a model can be centred. Other emergent systems have been simulated using simple sets of rules for organisms that correspond to the local information they use in practice, and this approach could be tried with mineralization. Candidate rules are suggested.     

Correction of a large-scale soil map with the use of the new classification system of Russian soils

A large-scale soil map of one of the farms in the south of Karelia has been analyzed. This map was initially compiled in 1979 on the basis of the official Classification and Diagnostics of Soils of the Soviet Union (1977). We have corrected it with the use of the new Classification and Diagnostics of Russian Soils. Both the names of the map units and the particular delineations on the map have been changed. These changes are related to differences in the principles of soil diagnostics in the old and new classification systems and to real changes in the soil cover that have taken place after the map’s compilation. In particular, large areas of peat bogs have been drained, and the cultivated peat soils have been subjected to accelerated mineralization. Surface planing works after digging drainage channels have also changed the soil cover pattern. The revised large-scale soil map developed on the basis of the new classification system gives more adequate information about the real soil cover.     

近20年农田精准管理分区施肥方法研究进展

精准管理分区(Site Specific Management Zones,SSMZ)是精准农业中实现定时、定点、定量、定配方投入水肥药等农业生产资料的关键环节.SSMZ已经在精准农业中得到了迅速的发展与应用,该技术对于减少农业投入、提高经济效益及减轻农业面源污染具有重要意义.全面地认识SSMZ的研究现状及存在问题,有...     

Agroecological Soil-Ameliorative Map of the Nonchernozemic Zone of European Russia on a scale of 1 : 1.5 M

The modern state of agroecological mapping is discussed. It is shown that the “Agroecological Soil-Ameliorative Map of the Nonchernozemic Zone of European Russian” belongs to a new type of maps with respect to the principles of its compilation and thematic contents. This map applies the systems approach to the analysis of the spatial differentiation of the territory and combines several information layers: the layer of landscape information differentiated into seven hierarchical levels, the layer showing the agroecological capacity of soils, the layer of soil reclamation and erosion-control measures, the layer of agroecological soil groups, the layer showing the areas that are unsuitable or low-suitable for their agricultural use, etc. The legend to the map is based on a hierarchical genetic classification of landscapes designed for the purposes of reclamation works and agriculture. The criteria applied in this classification reflect stable natural components of landscapes specifying crop growing conditions and the methods of their optimization. The map is designed for solving the problems of the ecological rationalization of agriculture.     

On the role of expert systems and numerical taxonomy in soil classification

Expert systems and numerical classification in general are reviewed and their relative ability to improve soil classification systems are discussed. The inductive and deductive elements of expert systems are seen as corresponding to the class establishment and class assignment phases of classification; computerized expert systems have so far been set up only for very simple assignments. To date, numerical classification has been useful in the analysis and organization of local low-level soil data but has been largely untried at the higher global levels of soil classification because of a lack of suitable data and scientific commitment. It is concluded that numerical classification has a potentially useful part to play in establishing soil classes and generating rules for assignment in expert systems. The inference procedures and user interface of expert systems should allow more integration and realistic assignment of available data and increase the usefulness and predictability of soil information, especially if presented in a user-friendly mode.     

Urban Soils: Diagnostics and Taxonomic Position according to Materials of Scientific Excursion in Moscow at the Suitma-9 Workshop

Using the latest version of the international soil classification (WRB 2014/2015) and the classification of soils of Russia (2004/2008), the authors attempted to demonstrate how specific profiles of urban soils in green massifs are classified at different taxonomic levels. The soil profiles were shown in the excursions of the 9th International Conference “Soils of Urban, Industrial, Traffic, Mining and Military Areas” and were discussed by the representatives of national scientific schools. The diversity of the soils studied is determined primarily by the technology of their creation or by the nature of human impact, soil age, properties of the soil-forming rock, and, to a lesser extent, by the type of artificial phytocenosis. By the properties of their profiles, soils are qualified as ones on technogenic deposits (artificial buildings or displaced natural grounds with fragments of soil horizons), buried agrozems and cultural layers. The comparison of two classification systems showed their similarity with respect to the taxonomic level. One can note a similarity of the main solution: are the soils natural or anthropogenic, although the degrees of “anthropogeneity” given in their names may not coincide. The existing differences in the sets of characteristics–qualifiers reflect the genetic trend in the Russian soil classification and strict following the rules in the WRB system.     

欧美发达国家场地土壤污染防治技术体系概述

国际经验表明,科学完整的土壤污染防治技术体系是全面推进土壤质量保护和土壤污染防治工作的基础保障,尤其对处于起步阶段且面临诸多挑战的中国土壤污染防治工作,虽然任重而道远,却是土壤污染管理能力建设的必然。为有效预防和治理修复工业遗留场地的土壤污染问题,加快推动城市土地的安全与可持续利用,本文全面系统地阐述了美国、英国和其他欧洲发达国家场地土壤污染防治技术体系的要素构成及演变特点:各国土壤污染防治制度及管理方法异同并存,构建一套完整有效的土壤污染防治体系必须以基于风险的全过程可持续管理为原则,涵盖法律保障、技术体系和管理手段等三个相互关联、相互影响的要素方面。其中,法律法规是标准制定和措施执行的核心原则和关键导向;标准导则是加强法律法规可行性的细化、具象;管理手段是法律法规和标准导则实践层面的配套保障。欧美等发达国家完善的场地土壤污染防治体系对中国防治体系的构建具有非常重要的指导意义,借鉴发达国家成功经验,从中国土壤污染防治的现实需要和具体国情出发,提出了三元一体的"法律—技术—管理"土壤污染防治技术体系的发展方向和重要内容,该体系涵盖法律法规体系、技术标准体系和可持续管理体系三个方面。     

Ecological niches of major soil types in Russia: Geographical aspects of the new Russian soil classification system

The factors of soil formation are not directly taken into account in the new profile-genetic Russian soil classification system; they are not reflected in the names and diagnostics of the soils. At the same time, as well as in many other modern soil classification systems, including the American Soil Taxonomy and the WRB system, the choice of the diagnostic criteria, the establishment of the relationships between them, and the setting of the quantitative boundaries between the soil taxa are based on our perception of soil geneses with due account for the factors of soil formation. In contrast to the ecological-genetic soil classification system of 1977, information on the factors of soil formation in the new system is encoded in the properties of the soil horizons. In some cases, this is insufficient for the definite geographic localization of soils and complicates the practical application of the new classification system. In this context, information on the ecological niches of soil types was included in the field manual on soil correlation-an abridged version of the soil classification system published in 2008—in the form of special tables developed for native and agrogenic soils. The analysis of these tables made it possible to outline certain geographic regularities in the distribution of soil types belonging to the trunk of postlithogenic soils.     

Classification and assignment in soil science

Abstract. The paper presents an introduction to automated methods of classification and assignment, with particular reference to their use in the analysis of soil data. Material covered includes: types of variable describing a soil sample; measures of dissimilarity; clustering criteria and algorithms; representation of data as points in a low-dimensional space; assessment of classifications; incorporation into a classification of spatial relationships between soil samples; assignment of objects to the population with maximum posterior probability; assignment procedures for data described by variables of mixed type; kernel density estimation; assignment to spatially-located populations.     

Isotope techniques to study phosphorus cycling in agricultural and forest soils: a review

A sound understanding of nutrient dynamics in ecosystems is required in order to manage these systems on a sustainable basis. A valuable approach to studying phosphorus (P) dynamics in soil-plant systems has been the use of P isotope techniques. Isotope techniques used for studying P cycling in agricultural and forest soils are reviewed in this paper with particular reference to advances made in the part 15 years. A brief discussion of the properties of P isotopes and their measurements is included together with techniques for measuring exchangeable P in the soil, dissolution and decomposition rates of inorganic and organic P sources applied to the soil, rates of organic P immobilization and mineralization, rates of P release and retention in the soil, root activity and lifter decomposition rates in forest soils, and gene probing and hybridization. Basic principles, assumptions, procedures, limitations and merits of methods are discussed. These techniques have served as or have the potential to be valuable tools for advancing our understanding of P dynamics in soil-plant systems, and for studying the molecular characteristics of microbial communities in relation to the cycling of nutrients in the soil.     

俄罗斯新土壤分类的研究现状和特点

通过与俄罗斯著名土壤学家来访时的交流、结合最新的一些文献记载 ,作者介绍了俄罗斯新土壤分类的研究状况 ,包括土壤分类的原则、方法 ,新土壤系统分类体系的建立、特点与存在的问题。使我国土壤科学工作者对曾是土壤发生分类的发源地的俄罗斯土壤分类研究的最新进展有所了解