Evaluation and calibration of simple methods for daily reference evapotranspiration estimation in humid East China

The current study aims to improve the performance of simple methods for the estimation of daily reference evapotranspiration (ET₀) in humid East China, namely Priestley–Taylor 1972 (P-T 1972), Hargreaves–Samani 1985 (H-S 1985) and Turc 1961 (TU 1961). These methods were evaluated and calibrated based on well-watered grass lysimeter experiments. The FAO-56 Penman–Monteith equation (FAO-56 PM) is the best method, and the radiation-based methods (TU 1961 and P-T 1972) perform much better than the temperature-based method (H-S 1985). In the simple methods, the coefficients are calibrated to: 1.34 for P-T 1972; 0.0186, 23.47 and 17.06 for TU 1961; and 0.0027 and 0.449 for H-S 1985. The locally calibrated TU 1961 and P-T 1972 perform much better than the original, with either the observed ET_0r or the ET_0c obtained by FAO-56 PM as standard. However, local calibration does not significantly improve the performance of the H-S 1985 method. In humid East China, FAO-56 PM is the best method for daily ET₀ calculation. TU 1961, especially if locally calibrated, is the optimal choice as a simple substitute for FAO-56 PM when solar radiation is available. Otherwise, serious local calibration is strongly recommended before applying H-S 1985 for daily ET₀ estimation.     

Evaluation of pan coefficient equations for estimating reference crop evapotranspiration in the arid region

Reference evapotranspiration (ET₀) can be estimated on basis of pan evaporation data (E_pan), whose measurements have the advantage of low cost, simplicity of the measuring equipment, simple data interpretation and application as well as suitability for locations with limited availability of meteorological data. E_pan values were converted to ET₀ using the pan evaporation coefficient (K_pan). In this study, seven common K_pan equations were evaluated for prediction of ET₀ in the growing season (April to October) in arid region of Iran. The Cuenca approach was best suited compared to the standard FAO Penman–Monteith method (FAO-56 PM).     

Study of different climatic conditions to assess the role of solar radiation in reference crop evapotranspiration equations

This study aims to assess radiation-based models versus the FAO Penman–Monteith (FPM) model to determine the best model using linear regression under different weather conditions. The reference evapotranspiration was estimated using 22 radiation-based methods and was compared with the FPM. The results showed that the Stephens method estimates the reference evapotranspiration better than other methods in the most provinces of Iran (nine provinces). However, the values of R² were more than 0.9930 for 24 provinces of Iran. The radiation-based methods estimated the reference evapotranspiration near the Caspian Sea better than other regions. The most precise methods were the Berengena–Gavilan, Modified Priestley–Taylor, and Priestley–Taylor methods for the provinces ES (center of Iran), GI and GO (north of Iran) and the Stephens–Stewart method for IL (west of Iran). Finally, a list of the best performance of each method has been presented to use other regions and next research steps according to the values of mean, maximum, and minimum temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, elevation, sunshine, and wind speed. The best weather conditions to use radiation-based equations are 23.6–24.6 MJ m^?2 day^?1, 12–20°C, 18–24°C, 5–13°C, and <180 hour month^?1 for solar radiation, mean, maximum, and minimum temperature, and sunshine, respectively.     

Evaluation of some equations for estimating evapotranspiration in the south of Iran

The Penman–Monteith (PM) equation is the most common method of estimating reference crop evapotranspiration (ET _o) for different climates of the world. This equation needs full weather data, however, few stations with complete weather data exist in Fars Province, in the south of Iran. Therefore, other equations based on more readily available weather data, such as temperature and rainfall, can be used instead of the PM equation in Fars Province. Four calibrated equations have been proposed in previous studies for Fars Province using weather data up to 2000. These equations were the Hargreaves equation (H), a new equation based on monthly temperature and rainfall (R), the Thornthwaite equation (T) and the Blaney–Criddle equation (B). Using weather data for 2001 to 2006 from 14 stations in Fars Province and outside the province, this study determined the best equations for estimating ET _o in each month and each station, rather than using the PM equation. The results revealed that equations H, R, T and B showed a good correlation to the PM equation, and can be used to estimate monthly ET _o in the study area. Also, the best equation for each location in Fars Province in each month of the year can be determined by using prepared distribution maps. Furthermore, the results showed that there was no specific relationship between the climate at the station and the best equation for estimating ET _o.     

基于气温估算参考作物蒸散量方法的对比与改进

为提高基于气温数据估算参考作物蒸散量（ET0）模型的精度,该研究对比分析了基于温度数据估算ET0的Penman-Monteith（PMT）模型、Hargreaves-Samani（HS）模型和改进HS模型,并运用基于气温数据估算实际水汽压和太阳辐射的最新进展改进PMT模型。结果表明：改进HS模型较传统HS模型提高了半干旱区到湿润区ET0的估算精度; PMT模型与改进HS模型估算的各气候区相关系数（r）均值相似,但与改进HS模型相比,PMT模型提高了除湿润区和亚湿润干旱区外各气候区的ET0估算精度,均方根误差（RMSE）和相对均方根误差（RRMSE）均值分别降低0.01～0.15 mm/d和0～0.05,且模型效率（EF）均值提高了0.01～0.06;本文提出的改进PMT模型可进一步改进PMT模型估算除干旱区和半干旱区外各气候区精度,RMSE和RRMSE均值较原PMT模型分别降低0.04～0.12 mm/d和0.02～0.04,r和EF均值更接近于1;并且改进PMT模型估算各站点全局性能指数（Global Performance Index,GPI）值较好,90%的站点GPI值排名第一。因此,建议在仅有气温数据时,使用改进PMT模型作为估算ET0的推荐模型。研究成果可为区域农业水资源管理提供依据。     

Priestley-Taylor与Penman法计算参照作物腾发量的结果比较

利用北京气象站50年的气象资料，对两种常用的计算参照作物腾发量的公式——Priestley-Taylor和Penman方法的计算结果进行了比较。年值序列比较显示，Priestley-Taylor结果远小于Penman结果，前者比后者低15%～31%，两者最大相差378.3 mm，最小相差150.9 mm，多年平均相差255.9 mm。对历年逐月序列分析显示，两种方法在7、8月份的结果十分接近，没有显著差异，但其它月份均存在显著差异。造成这种显著差异的原因，既有降雨的影响，又有Penman中空气动力学项的影响，而后者的影响可能更大些。空气动力项与辐射项之比与两种方法的吻合程度呈显著负相关。该比值越大，两种方法的吻合程度越差；反之，吻合程度越好。     

Comparison of artificial neural networks and prediction models for reference evapotranspiration estimation in a semi-arid region

Estimation of reference evapotranspiration (ET_o) is essential for determination of crop water requirements. In this research, Penman–FAO (P-FAO) and Penman–Monteith (PM) equations were calibrated and validated by lysimeter-measured ET_o with six and four weather parameters. Furthermore, two input structures (six and four weather parameters) to artificial neural networks (ANNs) were investigated. Results showed that the accuracy of the PM equation is greater than that of the P-FAO equation. An empirical equation was developed to estimate daily ET_o using mean daily temperature and relative humidity, and sunshine hours. The accuracy of the equation to estimate daily ET_o using smooth weather data is greater than that of an equation using original data. Furthermore, ANNs were able to estimate ET_o properly. The accuracy of ANNs with six inputs is higher than that obtained using the P-FAO equation and is similar to that determined using the PM equation. A decrease in number of inputs to ANNs generally decreased the accuracy of estimation, however, ANNs were able to estimate ET_o properly when wind speed and solar radiation were unavailable. Furthermore, the accuracy of ANNs, with four input parameters is greater than that obtained using the PM equation and is similar to that obtained with P–FAO and the developed empirical equations.     

参考作物蒸发蒸腾量计算方法在海河流域的适用性

参考作物蒸发蒸腾量（ET0）的计算公式很多,各公式所需参数各异,为寻找一种所需资料少而又精度较高的替代方法,选用1998年FAO-56分册推荐的Penman－Monteith（PM）、Hargreaves、Irmark-Allen等6种方法分别计算海河流域10个典型气象站30 a的参考作物蒸发蒸腾量,并以PM公式为标准,对其他方法进行评价。结果表明,10个站点中除了五台山地区,Hargreaves与FAO-24 Radiation 这2种方法更接近于PM方法的计算结果,其误差较小,在海河流域缺少辐射和风速     

四川省不同区域参考作物蒸散量计算方法的适用性评价

为实现参考作物蒸散量(reference crop evapotranspiration,ET0)在资料缺失情况下的准确计算,对ET0简化算法在四川省不同区域的适用性进行科学评价,将四川省划分为4个区域(I东部盆地区、II盆周山地区、III川西南地区和IV川西高原区),采用46个气象站点1954-2013年逐日气象资料,以1998 FAO-56 Penman-Monteith(PM)法的计算结果为标准,对具有代表性的6种简易算法48 Penman(48PM)法、Hargreaves-Samani(HS)法、Pristley-Taylor(PT)法、Irmark-Allen(IA)法、Makkink(MAK)法和Penman-Van Bavel(PVB)法的计算精度进行对比,结果表明:6种方法在四川省不同区域计算精度差异明显,HS法、PT法和PVB法较为精准,48PM法、IA法和MAK法误差较大,其中I区表现最好的为HS法,II、III和IV区表现最好的方法均为PT法;同时,除PT法和PVB法外,其余方法空间变异性较大(HS法在海拔较低的I、II区较为精准,在海拔较高的III和IV区结果远小于PM法,48PM法在四川东南地区的计算误差为11.1%~37.5%,在浅山丘区和高原区计算误差多大于50%)。因此,计算四川省的参考作物蒸散量时,推荐在东部盆地区使用HS法,盆周山地区、川西南地区与川西高原区使用PT法。     

Estimation of daily reference evapotranspiration by neuro computing techniques using limited data in a semi-arid environment

In this paper, the daily reference evapotranspiration (ET₀) for Bulawayo Goetz was estimated from climatic data using neuro computing techniques. The region lacks reliable weather data and experiences inconsistencies in the measuring process due to inadequate and obsolete measuring equipment. This paper aims to propose neuro computing techniques as an alternative methodology to estimating evapotranspiration. Firstly, ET₀ was calculated using FAO-56 Penman-Monteith (PM) equation from available climatic data. Data was divided into training, testing and validation for neuro computing purposes. The study also investigated the effect of different normalisation techniques on neuro computing ET₀ estimation accuracy. In another application, neuro-computing ET₀ estimates were compared against those obtained using empirical methods and their calibrated versions. The Z-score normalisation technique for all data sets gave best results with a Multi-layer perceptron (5–5-1) model having RMSE, MAE and R² values in the range 0.12–0.25 mm day^?1, 0.08–0.15 mm day^?1 and 0.94–0.99 respectively. There were no significant differences in ET₀ estimation accuracy by neuro computing techniques due to normalisation technique. The Neuro computing techniques were superior to empirical methods in ET₀ estimation for Bulawayo Goetz. The Neuro computing techniques are recommended for use in cases of limited climatic data at Bulawayo Goetz.     

中国参考作物腾发量时空变化特性分析

分析参考作物腾发量的时空变化特征,有助于了解中国农业及生态需水的分布与演变规律。基于全国范围200多个气象站测站逐日气象观测资料,应用FAO-Penman-Monteith公式,计算得出各站历年逐日参照作物腾发量ET₀。利用GIS的空间分析功能,采用反距离空间插值方法得到全国参考腾发量的分布图,统计分析了不同分区不同时段ET₀的变化情况。结果表明：西北河西走廊地区和南方岭南地区的参考作物腾发量较大,最大值超过1500 mm。而东北黑龙江一带和四川盆地附近,参考作物腾发量较小,在600～700 mm之间。此外,夏季ET₀的分布特征决定了全年ET₀的分布特征。选取4个代表气象站,对其ET₀的历年变化及其与气象因素的关系进行了分析。分析表明,受风速减小和气温增加的共同影响,干旱地区、半干旱地区和半湿润地区的参考作物腾发量呈现减少趋势,湿润地区则相对稳定。     

黄土区参考作物蒸散量多种计算方法的比较研究(简报)

参考作物蒸散量的计算公式大多存在地域性限制,分析其应用情况能够反映这些公式在中国部分地区的应用前景.该文根据1996～2000年陕西省榆林、延安与西安三站的逐日气象资料,以FAO推荐的Penman-Monteith方法为标准, 对计算参考作物蒸散量的10种方法进行比较.线性回归,平方根误差与平均偏差方法检验的结果显示:Penman系列方法之间关系密切,Kimberly PM-72方法最好.不同方法之间在夏季的差异较大,春秋季较小.在需要数据较少的方法中Privstley-Taylor方法接近penman-Monteith方法.FAO-Rad、FAO-BC、Hargreaves与Makkink4种方法与其差异明显,而且存在地域差异.在本区应用这些方法时需要对其参数进行适当调整,以适应当地的气象条件.