Nutrient composition and protein quality of minor millets

Nutrient composition of five minor millets produced and consumed in dry land regions and tribal areas of Andhra Pradesh, India, was evaluated. The millets analysed were Italian millet (Setaria Italica), French millet (Panicum miliaceum), Barnyard millet (Echinachloa colona), Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) and little millet (Panicum miliare). The nutrients analysed were proximate principles, amino acids, fibre components, calcium, Phosphorus and Iron. Protein and energy were evaluated by true digestability (TD), biological value (BV), net protein utilization (NPU) and digestible energy (DE) in rats. The protein content was higher and lysine content lower, when compared to major millets. Dehusked millets had lower total dietary fibre (TDF) and tannin. The TD of protein ranged between 95.0 to 99.3, whereas the BV was between 48.3 and 56.5. All the millets were poor sources of calcium, phosphorus and iron, with the exception of french millet.     

Nutritional evaluation of some commercial wheat varieties grown in Pakistan

The nutritive value of some commercial wheat varieties grown in Pakistan was measured chemically, including amino acid analysis, and biologically in N-balance experiments with growing rats. The protein content ranged from 13.2% in Punjab-83 to 16% in Barani-83. Lysine per 100g protein varied between 2.46 and 2.75%. The available carbohydrate ranged from 67.3 to 74.7%. Iron content was highest in Sonalika while the concentration of zinc and manganese was highest in Sarhad-82. The protein digestibility (TD), biological value (BV) and net protein utilisation (NPU) varied between 92–95%, 56–68% and 53–65% respectively. Level of wheat protein was negatively correlated with available carbohydrate (r=–0.93), lysine per unit protein (r=–0.67) and BV (r=–0.76). The lysine content (g/16gN) of commercial wheat varieties showed a positive correlation (r=+0.95) with the BV. The protein quality was lowered in varieties having higher content of protein.     

Effect of processing on protein digestibility,biological value and net protein utilization of millet and legume based infant mixes and biscuits

Effect of combinations of millet and legume and processing on digestibility, biological value and net protein utilization was evaluated using albino rats. The millets and legumes selected for the study include sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, chickpea and green gram (P radiatus). The processes tested include dehulling, boiling, roasting, malting and baking. Among the combinations tested, the sorghum-chickpea combination had significantly (p<0.05) higher digestibility. Between the processes tested, roasting resulted in significantly higher net protein utilization. Results of biological study on biscuits prepared by using millet and legume combination flours, indicated the biscuits to be of good protein quality.     

Characterization of starches of proso,foxtail, barnyard,kodo, and little millets

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) pictures of small millet starch granules showed more large polygonal and few small spherical or polygonal granules. The granules of small millets resembled those of rice starch granules. The size of the starch granules ranged from 0.8–10 m. The size of the granules was larger in barnyard millet and smaller in proso millet. Several granules showed deep indentation caused by protein bodies. SEM of starch isolated from 24 hour-germinated kodo millet showed pitting or pinholes at some points due to the attack of amylases (preferentially on bigger granules). Brabender viscoamylograph studies on small millet starches revealed that the gelatinization temperatures ranged from 75.8 to 84.9 ^° C. Barnyard millet possessed lower amylograph viscosity, minimum breakdown, and relative breakdown values when compared to the other small millets.     

Isolation and characterization of a 20 kD prolamin from kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) (L.): Homology with other millets and cereals

The homologus 20 kD prolamin from kodo millet and other minor millets viz. barnyard, little and foxtail millets, were purified using preparative gel electrophoresis and reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). The amino acid composition of the purified 20 kD prolamin protein from different minor millets revealed higher content of glutamic acid, alanine, leucine and serine and lower quantity of lysine and methionine. They contain 55 to 58 percent of non-polar amino acids which make them more hydrophobic than other protein fractions. The total number of amino acid residues per polypeptide chain ranged from 152 to 155 based on theoretical calculation. Peptide mapping of the 20 kD prolamin hydrolyzed with trypsin gave fewer cleavage products than expected. The antigenic relationships among these minor millets and cereals viz. wheat, maize, rice, sorghum, finger millet and pearl millet were studied using the antibody raised against the 20 kD prolamin. Cross reactivity was seen in all the minor millets at the 20 kD region. But in barnyard and little millets lower molecular weight polypeptides also cross reacted with the antibody. Immunoblotting studies revealed that the prolamins from other cereals and millets are related to the 20 kD prolamin of kodo millet. Rice was the only common cereal that did not cross react immunologically with the antibody raised against 20 kD prolamin of kodo millet.     

Effect of Pre- and Post-heading Water Deficit on Growth and Grain Yield of Four Millets

Abstract

Seeds of Panicum miliaceum, P. sumatrense, Setaria glauca and S. italica were raised in polyvinylchloride (PVC) tubes filled with sandy soil in a greenhouse to determine the effect of preand post-heading water deficit on growth and grain yield. Water stress treatment was initiated 25 days after sowing. The grain yield of S. italica and S. glauca decreased 80 and 70%, respectively, under water stress; and that of P. miliaceum and P. sumatrense decreased 36 and 20%, respectively. The reductions were ascribed to smaller number of grains per panicle, smaller number of panicles and lighter total dry weight. The grain yield decreased when water stress was imposed before heading in S. italica and S. glauca ,but both before and after heading in P. miliaceum and P. sumatrense. Mild water stress decreased the leaf water potential of all millets. Osmotic adjustment of the leaf could not explain the interspecific difference in drought tolerance. Water stress increased the root growth of S. italica ,S. glauca and P. sumatrense at deeper soil layers at heading. At harvest, it also increased root growth at deeper soil layers in S.italica and S. glauca. There was a significant correlation between grain yield and root dry weight among the millets except S. italica. The drought tolerant millet showed greater drought tolerance to water deficit not only at the vegetative stages but also at the reproductive stages than two susceptible millets.     

Nutritive value of malted millet flours

The changes in proximate composition, phytate phosphorus, thiamine and ascorbic acid content of finger millet, pearl millet and foxtail millet during progressive germination were studied. Germination resulted in a slight decrease in total protein and minerals, a marked fall in phytate-phosphorus and a significant increase in the ascorbic acid content of the millets. An increase in lysine and tryptophan but no appreciable changes in threonine and sulfur amino acid content of the millets were observed as a result of germination. However, the protein efficiency ratio values of ungerminated control seeds, 48 h germinated green malt and kilned malt were not significantly different.     

Growth of Roots Emerged from Excised Phytomers of Three Gramineous Species under a Low Osmotic Potential

Abstract

The growth of crown and lateral roots emerged from the excised phytomers of pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoideum Rich.), barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea Link.) and maize (Zea mays L.) was studied under normal and low osmotic potential conditions. The plants were grown in two solutions with osmotic potentials of –0.02 and –0.54 MPa for 6 days. The relative growth rate of the roots in total length (RGR_L) , was not affected by osmotic stress in pearl and barnyard millets, but that in stressed maize was reduced to 64% of the control. Similarly, the relative growth rate of the roots in dry weight (RGR_W), was not affected by osmotic stress in pearl and barnyard millets, but significantly reduced in maize. Osmotic stress increased the specific root length of the lateral roots in pearl and barnyard millets, but did not affect that of maize. The photosynthetic rate (Pr) in the two millets was decreased to ca. 60% of the control by the stress, and that in maize was reduced to 21%. Under the stress, Pr in the three species was limited mainly by low stomatal conductance, but no clear relationship was found between Pr and osmotic adjustment of the leaf. The relative water content of the leaf was lower in maize than in the two millets. The resistance to water flow through the phytomer (R) was significantly increased by osmotic stress in maize, but not significantly in the two millets. The mean root length (RL) was decreased by the stress in maize, but not in the two millets. The maintenance of RGR_L in the two millets was associated with sustained R, RL and also with the maintenance of Pr and allocation of assimilates to roots.     

In vitro starch and protein digestibility and iron availability in weaning foods as affected by processing methods

In the present investigation, four weaning foods were formulated using locally available cereals and pulses such as wheat (Triticum aestivum), barley (Hordeum vulgare) and green gram (Vigna radiata). Cereal, pulse and jaggery were used in the proportion of 70:30:25. Domestic processing technique like roasting and malting were used to process cereals and pulses for development of weaning foods. All the four blends had a nutrient composition within the range prescribed by the Indian Standard Institute (ISI) for processed weaning foods. The processing of grains resulted in 16–20% increase in starch digestibility and 17–32% increase in protein digestibility. Also 16–32% increase in iron availability was observed on processing. The effect was more remarkable in malted weaning foods as compared to roasted ones.     

Tolerance of foxtail,proso and pearl millets to saflufenacil

Herbicide options for weed control in millets are very limited and hence there is a need for exploring potential herbicides. Field trials were conducted at three locations in Kansas and Nebraska in 2009 to evaluate foxtail millet, proso millet, and pearl millet tolerance to saflufenacil applied preemergence (PRE) at 36, 50, and 100 g ai ha⁻¹. Foxtail millet was the most sensitive of the three millets to saflufenacil. Among experimental sites, saflufenacil at 36 g ha⁻¹ injured foxtail millet 59–99% and reduced plant stands 41–95%; nearly all plants died at 100 g ha⁻¹. Despite early season foliar injury and up to 36% stand reduction, fodder or grain yields of proso and pearl millets were not reduced by any rate of saflufenacil compared to untreated controls. Additional trials were conducted at four locations in Kansas, Nebraska and South Dakota in 2010 and 2011 to refine saflufenacil use rate (36 and 50 g ha⁻¹) and application timing [14 days early preplant (EPP); 7 days preplant (PP); and PRE] for use in proso and pearl millets. Saflufenacil applied EPP or PP, regardless of rate, caused up to 21 and 6% foliar injury and up to 21 and 9% plant stand reduction in proso and pearl millets, respectively. However, yields were not reduced by EPP or PP treatments in either millet crop. PRE applications of saflufenacil caused the highest crop injury and stand reduction in both millets. Saflufenacil PRE at 36 g ha⁻¹ caused up to 57 and 40% foliar injury and up to 42 and 24% stand reductions in proso and pearl millets, respectively; however, yields were not affected. Comparatively, saflufenacil PRE at 50 g ha⁻¹ reduced yields of proso and pearl millets 36 and 52%, respectively, on sandy loam soils with high pH (8.3) and low organic matter content (1.1%). Overall, results indicated that foxtail millet lacks tolerance to saflufenacil, but up to 50 g ha⁻¹ of saflufenacil may be safely applied as near as 7 days before planting proso or pearl millets. If situation demands, saflufenacil at 36 g ha⁻¹ can also be applied PRE to either crop with risk of some crop injury.     

Common Indian spices: Nutrient composition,consumption and contribution to dietary value

Nutrient composition of eight commonly consumed spices of South India was analysed. Spices analysed were red chillies (Capsicum annum), black pepper (Piper nigrum), coriander seeds (Coriandrum sativum), cumin seeds (Cuminum cyminum), garlic (Allium sativum), asafoetida (Ferula foetida), dry ginger (Zingiber officinale) and ajowan (Carum copticum). The nutrients analysed were proximate principles, minerals, starch, sugars, dietary fibre components, tannins, phytic acid, enzyme inhibitors and amino acids. Dry ginger, ajowan and asafoetida had high calcium (1.0–1.5%) and iron (54–62 mg/100 g) levels. The tannin content of spices was also high (0.9–1.3% DM). Dietary fibre ranged from 14–53%. Spices had appreciable amounts of essential amino acids like lysine and threonine. A survey revealed the average per capita consumption of spices to be 9.54 g and at that level, the nutrient contribution from spices ranged from 1.2 to 7.9% of an average adult Indian male's requirement for different nutrients.     

Homologies between prolamins of different minor millets

Minor millets, viz. Barnyard millet, Proso millet, Little millet, Foxtail millet and Kodo millet, one variety in each grown in Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu were selected for the study. The protein contents of the selected decorticated millets were found to be 11.0, 12.3, 12.9, 10.5 and 10.6% respectively. Fractionation of these proteins revealed that prolamin forms major storage protein in Foxtail millet whereas, glutelin forms major storage protein in all the other millets. The extractability was studied using different solvents, viz. isopropyl alcohol, t-butyl alcohol and ethyl alcohol with varying concentration of 2-mercapto ethanol. Electrophoretic pattern of the extracted prolamins from these millets were compared and found that a protein band at the molecular weight range of 20 kD was found homologous in all except Proso millet. The extractability of the 20kD protein in 90% isopropyl alcohol showed its strong hydrophobic nature.     

Traditional production,consumption and storage of Kunu – a non alcoholic cereal beverage

A survey of the production, consumption and storage ofKunu was carried out. Some of the information included consumption rate, processing techniques andequipment, producer's status and grains used. About73% consume Kunu daily, 26% occasionally; 1% knowit is produced but may or may not be consuming it. Millet (Pennisetum typhoideum), sorghum (Sorghum vulgare), maize (Zea mays), rice (Oryza sativa) and acha (Digitalis exilis) wereused in its production in decreasing order ofpreference. The grains were used singly or combined;sorghum/millet was the most common combination in aratio of 1:2 (w/w). Steeping was done in ordinary water for 12–72 h, depending on the grain type, in localclay pots, plastic buckets, calabashes or basins or5–7 h in warm water (60–70 ^°C). The grainswere dry or wet milled with or without spices such asginger, red pepper, black pepper, clove and garlic.Other ingredients introduced included: sweet potatoes,malted rice, malted sorghum and Cadaba farinosacrude extract. Both dry and wet milling was done withgrinding mills, mill stones or mortar and pestle,depending on locality. The product was then cookedinto a thin free flowing gruel. The various types ofkunu were: Kunun zaki, Kunun gyada, Kunun akamu, Kununtsamiya, Kunun baule, Kunun jiko, Amshau and Kunungayamba. Kunun zaki was the most commonly consumed. Production and consumption cut across all socialclasses of the society.     

Effect of pre- and post-heading waterlogging on growth and grain yield of four millets

Seeds of Panicum miliaceum, Panicum sumatrense, Setaria glauca, and Setaria italica were raised in polyvinylchloride tubes filled with soil to determine interspecific differences in waterlogging tolerance and the effect of pre- and post-heading waterlogging on growth and grain yield. Four treatments were conducted including control (no-waterlogging stress during growth). Pre-heading waterlogging treatment was initiated 17 days after sowing to heading (TC). Post-heading waterlogging treatment was initiated heading till harvest (CT). Waterlogging treatment was initiated 17 days after sowing to harvesting (TT). The grain yield of P. miliaceum, S. glauca, and S. italica decreased 16, 18, and 4%, while that of P. sumatrense increased 210% under TT treatment and this showed P. sumatrense had most waterlogging tolerance. The grain yield was more affected under TC treatment in S. italica and P. miliaceum. However, there was not significant differences the grain yield between TC and CT treatment in P. sumatrense and S. glauca. Total dry weight, total root dry weight, number of crown root, and the proportion of lysigenous aerenchyma of P. sumatrense were significantly higher than those of other millets at harvesting. Plant growth rate, total root dry weight, number of crown root, and the proportion of lysigenous aerenchyma of P. sumatrense were significantly higher than those of other millets at heading. These results suggest that P. sumatrense exhibits waterlogging tolerance by enhancing root growth characterized by a high proportion of lysigenous aerenchyma in the crown root.     

Influence of spices on protein utilisation of winged bean (Prophocarpus tetragonolobus) and horsegram (Dolichos biflorus)

The influence of a mixture of eleven spices commonly consumed in India on the utilisation of protein from boiled winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) and horsegram (Dolichos biflorus) was studied at 10 and 20 percent level of protein intake in experimental rats. Spices used in the mixture include red chillies (Capsicum annum), black pepper (Piper nigrum), coriander (Coriandrum sativum), cumin (Cuminum cyminum), garlic (Allium sativum), ajowan (Carum copticum), turmeric (Curcuma longa), caraway seeds (Carum carui) and fennel seeds (Foeniculum vulgare). Addition of this spice mixture at 1.5% level of the diet decreased the TD of both legumes, significantly only in the case of horsegram. A significant increase was observed in the BV of both the legumes at both levels of protein tested.     

Influence of spices on utilization of sorghum and chickpea protein

Influence of eight common Indian spices on the protein quality of sorghum and chickpea was studied. Spices used include red chillies (Capsicum annum), black pepper (piper nigrum), coriander seeds (Coriandrum sativum) cumin seeds (Cuminum cyminum), garlic (Allium sativum), asafoetida (Ferula foetida), dry ginger (Zingiber officinale) and ajowan (Carum copticum). Addition of spices did not affect protein digestibility (TD) of sorghum. The BV of all sorghum diets with spices was higher than that of control diet. However, it was significant only in case of diets combined with red chilli + coriander (11) mix, black pepper + cumin (11) mix, coriander and cumin. Addition of spices did not have any effect on TD or BV of chickpea diets.     

Effect of treatment on composition and protein and energy utilization of rice and mung bean by rats

Yellow rice derived from stack-burned unthreshed grains had lower lysine content than white milled rice. Stack burning did not affect energy digestibility in growing rats but decreased true nitrogen digestibility and net protein utilization (NPU). Increasing parboiling time from 20 to 60 min had no adverse effect on energy and protein utilization of parboiled milled rice. Defatting of rice bran-polish with petroleum ether at 50°C had no effect on protein utilization but decreased energy content and utilization. Mechanical dehulling of mung bean (Vigna radiata [L.] Wilczek) reduced fiber content, increased energy and protein digestibility but decreased biological value (BV) and NPU. Toasting and winnowing the bean reduced lysine content, improved digestible energy but decreased BV and NPU. Cooking the bean preparations improved the biological value only in mechanically dehulled bean with resultant higher NPU than that of whole bean.     

Prior weakening of Macrophomina phaseolina and Fusarium propagules for enhancing efficiency of Brassica amendments

In a two year field study, the effect of varying intensities of sub-lethal heating on the efficiency of Brassica amendments in controlling viable populations of Macrophomina phaseolina and Fusarium oxysporum f sp. cumini was determined in an arid region of India. After 30 d of dry summer exposure of pathogen infested soil, incorporation of mustard residues and oil cake (0.18% and 0.04% w/w) and then applying one irrigation caused significant reduction by 75.3–81.3% in viable counts of M. phaseolina that causes dry root rot of legumes and by 93.9% in counts of F.o. f. sp. cumini causing wilt of cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) at 0–15 and 16–30 cm depths. Increasing duration of summer exposure to 60 d improved the reductions in viable propagules of M. phaseolina by 83.6–90.4% and in F.o. f. sp. cumini by 78.2–94.8% at same soil depths. At certain heat levels, reduction in viable population of Fusarium due to amendments and irrigation was greater than that recorded in Macrophomina. Significantly low levels of reduction in pathogenic propagules of Macrophomina (63.9–71.4%) and Fusarium (48.0–57.2%) under shade compared to unshaded conditions indicated that mild heating did not cause discernible weakening effect. In second season also, 89.2–91.5% and 78.5–95.8% reduction in counts of Macrophomina and Fusarium, respectively was achieved by the application of amendments after 60 d of summer exposure at 0–30 cm soil depth. These results suggested a new approach to improve the control of soil-borne plant pathogens in hot arid regions by combining prolonged sub-lethal heating, effective naturally available on-farm wastes as soil amendments and one summer irrigation.     

Amino acid composition and biological evaluation of the protein quality of high lysine barley genotypes

The protein quality of high lysine barley genotypes Notch₁ Notch₂,Riso-1508 and Hiproly grown in Indian soil was evaluated by determining amino acid composition and also by rat growth and nitrogen balance studies. Protein and fat contents were found to be highest in Riso-1508. Lysine concentration (5.26 g/16g N) of Riso-1508 was also highest compared to the other high lysine genotypes. Rat feeding trials indicated that the growth promoting qualities of the proteins of genotype Riso-1508 were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than the low lysine barley genotype. The comparatively low lysine barley diet had more digestible protein than the high lysine barley diet. However, the BV and NPU of the high lysine barley were significantly (p < 0.05) higher. This improvement is of importance in meeting the essential amino acid requirements of man as well as other monogastric animals. The study showed that the high lysine barley harvested in Indian agroclimatic conditions retained high lysine quality.     

Influence of processing conditions on the nutritive value of Ogi-baba,a Nigerian fermented sorghum gruel

The effect of germination, cowpea fortification and fermentation on thechemical and amino acid composition of ogi-baba, a Nigerian fermented sorghum gruelwas investigated. The lowest protein value of 1.4% was obtained in the traditionally preparedsample, while samples prepared from germinated, fortified sorghum had 13%. The ash ranged from 0.9% to above 2%, while the fat was in the range of 1.2% to2.8%. Generally, fortification, in addition to germination, improved the chemicalcomposition of ogi-baba relative to the control sample. There was improvement in the amino acidprofile of all the ogi-baba samples compared to the unprocessed sorghum grains.Lysine, a limiting amino acid in sorghum, increased more than 50% in ogi-baba. However, samples prepared using germinated sorghum without the addition of cowpeas hada lower lysine content.