Intestinal atresia and stenosis: A review comparing its morphology

A review of the literature on intestinal atresia of domestic animal species and humans was done. The 5 types of intestinal occlusions described in human infants are atresia type 1, atresia type 2, atresia type 3, stenosis, and the apple peel or Christmas tree deformity. The intestinal defects described in domestic animal species such as the bovine, equine and porcine are similar to those of human infants. The T-formation, an intestinal defect of the bovine resembling atresia type 3, and rectal stricture, an acquired intestinal defect of the porcine resembling stenosis, were described recently. Intestinal atresia is similar in several species and these similarities raise the questions as to whether the pathogenic mechanism and possibly etiologies of intestinal atresia are similar in these species.     

Characters of Escherichia coli 078 isolated from septicaemic animals

Twenty-one Escherichia coli isolates of serogroup 078 from animal septicaemia were obtained from laboratories in France, England and Canada. The bacteria were compared for outer membrane protein (OMP) patterns, lipopolysaccharide patterns, surface proteins of fimbrial types, biotypes, antibiotypes, colicin production, hydroxamate production and virulence in mice. Sixteen isolates from bovine, ovine, porcine and avian species in France and England had a similar OMP pattern. This characteristic associated with minor properties like surface proteins type, colicin V production and virulence in mice made these 16,078 E. coli isolates from 4 animal species, good candidates for the same clonal grouping. The five other bovine isolates with "Vir" or "31a" phenotypes were heterogeneous for most of the characteristics studied.     

Intestinal atresia and stenosis: a review comparing its etiopathogenesis

Two theories were proposed originally to describe the development of congenital intestinal atresia. The theory of imperfect recanalization, the theory of vascular insufficiency, and studies which have been performed to validate each of these theories were reviewed. Specific causes of the development of vascular insufficiencies in different species were reviewed if literature was available. In utero vascular accidents have been incriminated as the major cause of congenital intestinal atresia distal to the duodenum. There was relatively little evidence to show that intestinal atresia is inherited in any species. Duodenal atresia may be caused by either an embryologic defect for which there is some evidence of inheritance or by a vascular accident. The pathogenic mechanism for intestinal atresia may be similar in most species.     

Intestinal atresia and stenosis: A review comparing its etiopathogenesis

Two theories were proposed originally to describe the development of congenital intestinal atresia. The theory of imperfect recanalization, the theory of vascular insufficiency, and studies which have been performed tovalidate each of these theories were reviewed. Specific causes of the development of vascular insufficiencies in different species were reviewed if literature was available. In utero vascular accidents have been incriminated as the major cause of congenital intestinal atresia distal to the duodenum. There was relatively little evidence to show that intestinal atresia is inherited in any species. Duodenal atresia may be caused by either an embryologic defect for which there is some evidence of inheritance or by a vascular accident. The pathogenic mechanism for intestinal atresia may be similar in most species.     

Clonal relationships among Clostridium perfringens of porcine origin as determined by multilocus sequence typing

Clostridium perfringens is ubiquitous in the environment and the intestinal tracts of most mammals, but this organism also causes gas gangrene and enteritis in human and animal hosts. While expression of specific toxins correlates with specific disease in certain hosts, the other factors involved in commensalism and host pathogenesis have not been clearly identified. A multilocus sequence typing (MLST) scheme was developed for C. perfringens with the aim of grouping isolates with respect to disease presentation and/or host preference. Sequence data were obtained from one virulence and seven housekeeping genes for 132 C. perfringens isolates that comprised all five toxin types and were isolated from 10 host species. Eighty sequence types (STs) were identified, with the majority (75%) containing only one isolate. eBURST analysis identified three clonal complexes, which contained 59.1% of the isolates. Clonal complex (CC) 1 contained 31, predominantly type A isolates from diverse host species. Clonal complex 2 contained 75% of the bovine type E isolates examined in this study. Clonal complex 3 consisted predominantly of porcine type A and type C isolates. Interestingly, these porcine isolates (n=32) all carried consensus cpb2 and cna genes, encoding beta2 toxin and CpCna, a collagen binding protein, respectively. This compares to carriage of both these genes by only 3.6% of porcine isolates not present in clonal complex 3 (n=28). The data obtained indicates that MLST may be used to identify host species relationships with respect to these C. perfringens isolates.     

Characterization of porcine NLRP3 inflammasome activation and its upstream mechanism

Inflammasomes, which are intracellular sensors of endogenous or exogenous danger signals, activate caspase-1, resulting in interleukin (IL)-1β maturation. Although most studies on inflammasomes have been performed in human and/or mouse-derived macrophages, porcine inflammasome activation has not been elucidated even though pigs are considered one of the best animal models for translational and preclinical investigations. In this study, we optimized detection of porcine IL-1β secretion, which is the most well established indicator of inflammasome activation, and compared inflammasome activation between miniature and domestic pigs as well as between porcine and murine macrophages. In our results, anti-sera against murine IL-1β had higher affinity to porcine IL-1β than anti-sera against human IL-1β, even though the amino acid sequence of porcine IL-1β was more similar to that of human IL-1β. In addition, there was no significant difference in inflammasome activation between miniature and domestic pigs. Furthermore, well established inflammasome triggers (ATP, nigericin, and crystals) in humans and mice had similar effects on porcine NLRP3 inflammasome activation. We further elucidated the upstream signaling pathway of porcine inflammasome activation using pharmacological inhibitors. Similar to the mechanisms of inflammasome activation in humans and mice, potassium efflux and reactive oxygen species generation were confirmed as key pathways in porcine inflammasome activation. Thus, inflammasome activation in pigs is not different from that in humans or mice.     

Diversity and zoonotic potential of rotaviruses in swine and cattle across Europe

Group A rotaviruses can infect both humans and animals. Individual rotavirus strains can occasionally cross species barriers and might hereby contribute to the emergence of new genotypes in heterologous hosts. The incidence and impact of zoonotic rotavirus are not well defined, and one reason for this is a lack of data about strains circulating in suspected reservoir animal hosts. In this study we report the incidence, genetic diversity, and molecular epidemiology of rotaviruses detected in domestic cattle and swine in 6 European countries. From 2003 to 2007, 1101 and more than 2000 faecal specimens were collected from swine and cattle, both healthy and diarrhoeic, and tested for rotaviruses. Viruses from positive stools were genotyped and a subset of strains was characterized by nucleotide sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the VP7 (G) and VP4 (P) genes. Rotaviruses were detected in 43% of bovine samples and in 14% of porcine samples. In cattle, 10 different combinations of G and P types were identified and the most common strains were G6P[11] and G6P[5]. In swine, the number of identified G-P combinations was higher (n=21), however, no single combination was predominant across Europe. Newly described genotype specificities, P[27] and P[32], were identified in swine. When compared at the nucleotide sequence level, the identified porcine rotavirus strains and contemporary human strains grouped together phylogenetically, whereas bovine rotavirus strains formed separate clades. These data demonstrate large genetic diversity of porcine and bovine rotavirus strains across Europe, and suggest that livestock herds may serve as potential reservoirs for human infections.     

Absorbance Spectra of Inter-Species Hemoglobins in the Visible and Near Infrared Regions

This study was initiated to determine if the absorbance spectra of hemoglobins from nonhuman species were sufficiently different from those of human hemoglobin to affect the applicability of pulse oximetry to common domestic species. Hemoglobin was isolated from the blood of humans, dogs, cats, horses, cows, and pigs. The millimolar extinction coefficients for oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin samples were determined over the wavelength range of 600 to 1000 nm. Minor differences in the absorbance of both oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin were found between human hemoglobin and that of the dog, cat, horse, cow, and pig. However, correction for the presence of methemoglobin, the effects of light scattering by impurities in the solution, and technical error rendered these differences statistically insignificant. The results of this study suggest that the spectral properties of canine, feline, equine, bovine, and porcine hemoglobin do not differ significantly from that of human hemoglobin and should not be a limiting factor in the application of pulse oximeters that are based on human algorithms to animal species.     

Regulation of ovarian folliculogenesis by IGF and BMP system in domestic animals

Involvement of insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) and IGF binding proteins (IGFBPs) in ovarian folliculogenesis has been extensively studied during the last decade. In all mammalian species, IGF-I stimulates granulosa cell proliferation and steroidogenesis. The concentrations of IGF-I and -II do not vary during terminal follicular growth and atresia. In contrast, the levels of IGFBP-2 and -4, as well as IGFBP-5 in ruminants, dramatically decrease and increase during terminal follicular growth and atresia, respectively. These changes are responsible for an increase and a decrease in IGF bioavailability during follicular growth and atresia, respectively. They are partly explained by changes in ovarian expression. In particular, expression of IGFBP-2 mRNA decreases during follicular growth in ovine, bovine and porcine ovaries, and expression of IGFBP-5 mRNA dramatically increases in granulosa cells of bovine and ovine atretic follicles. Changes in IGFBP-2 and -4 levels are also due to changes in intrafollicular levels of specific proteases. Recently, we have shown that the pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A (PAPP-A) is responsible for the degradation of IGFBP-4 in preovulatory follicles of domestic animals. Expression of PAPP-A mRNA is restricted to the granulosa cell compartment, and is positively correlated to expression of aromatase and LH receptor. From recent evidence, the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) family would also play a key role in ovarian physiology of domestic animals. In particular, we and others have recently shown that a non-conservative substitution (Q249R) in the bone morphogenetic protein-receptor type IB (BMPR-IB) coding sequence is fully associated with the hyperprolific phenotype of FecB(B)/FecB(B) Booroola ewes. BMP-4 and GDF-5, natural ligands of BMPR-IB, strongly inhibit secretion of progesterone by ovine granulosa cells in vitro, but granulosa cells from FecB(B)/FecB(B) ewes are less responsive than those from FecB(+)/FecB(+) to the action of these peptides. It is suggested that in FecB(B)/FecB(B) ewes, Q249R substitution would impair the function of BMPR-IB, leading to a precocious differentiation of granulosa cells and of follicular maturation. Interestingly, recent findings have described mutations in BMP-15 gene associated with hyperprolific phenotypes in Inverdale and Hanna ewes, suggesting that the BMP pathway plays a crucial role in the control of ovulation rate.     

Animal noroviruses

Among enteric caliciviruses, noroviruses belong to the genus Norovirus, one of the four accepted genera in the family Caliciviridae. These single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses are highly variable both genetically and antigenically. Several animal enteric caliciviruses that are morphologically indistinguishable and genetically closely related to human noroviruses have been identified. The first bovine enteric noroviruses were described in Great Britain and are known as Newbury Agent 2. At least three genetic clusters of porcine noroviruses join together within genogroup II noroviruses. Human noroviruses are the most important cause of acute gastroenteritis illness in people of all ages. In the USA, they are associated with approximately 30-50% of all food-borne outbreaks. Until now, noroviruses have not been associated with gastroenteritis outbreaks in immunocompetent animals. Neither bovine nor porcine noroviruses can replicate in cell culture, although human norovirus can grow in a complex 3D culture system. However, the recently discovered murine noroviruses can replicate in cell culture and are therefore used as model viruses to study human noroviruses. This review focusses on virus classification, virion structure, pathogenesis, epidemiology, immune response and diagnosis of animal noroviruses in comparison with human noroviruses. The classification of animal enteric caliciviruses within the Norovirus genus raises the question of whether transmission from an animal reservoir to humans could occur. Answering this question is important in determining the risk of cross-species infections affecting the epidemiology and evolution of these viruses and so complicating the control of human norovirus infections.     

Identification and partial purification of serum growth hormone binding protein in domestic animal species.

The chemical nature and variations in serum concentrations of growth hormone binding protein (GHBP) from humans, rabbits, and rodents have been reported. To date little is known about the GHBP of domestic animals. Therefore, we initiated these studies to determine whether a serum GHBP was present in domestic animals and to purify the binding protein (BP) from serum of selected species. Using a dextran-coated charcoal separation assay, specific growth hormone (GH) binding was demonstrated in ovine, bovine, chicken, human, goose, porcine, and equine serum (listed in sequence from lowest to highest binding). Variation in BP activity was relatively high, both within and between species. Yearling ewes had higher serum GHBP than either prepubertal (4 mo) or older (5 yr) ewes. The GHBP was partially purified from chicken, ovine, and porcine serum using GH affinity chromatography. These BP had high affinity (Ka = 2 x 10(8) to 2 x 10(9) L/mol, depending on species) and low capacity (2 x 10(-10) to 5 x 10(-11) mol/unit of protein) for human GH but showed lower binding affinity for homologous GH (Ka = 2 x 10(7) L/mol). The porcine GHBP had the highest and ovine GHBP the lowest affinity for human GH. Other heterologous somatotropic hormones, ovine placental lactogen, and ovine GH displayed higher binding affinity to chicken and pig BP than the respective homologous hormones. Further chromatographic purification of the porcine GHBP resulted in an additional 1,000-fold purification. The estimated molecular weight of porcine GHBP is 50,000 to 60,000 Da. These results demonstrate that the serum from all domestic species tested contains a specific GH-binding moiety and that under the conditions described here human GH is a more efficient ligand than the homologous hormone.     

In vitro dermal disposition of abamectin (avermectin B(1)) in livestock

Many avermectins are approved for topical application in domestic animals. However, extralabel use may result in significant dermal absorption and consequently the potential for adverse effects or violative residues. The primary aim of this study was to assess dermal disposition of abamectin in vitro in bovine, caprine, ovine, and porcine skin dosed in 100% isopropanol, commercial alcohol-based (Ivomec), or oil-based (Eprinex) formulations. Skin sections were perfused in a flow-through diffusion cell system for 8 h, and the disposition of radiolabel abamectin was determined from perfusate and skin samples. Abamectin absorption ranged from 0.09% to 0.20% dose and there were no significant differences between formulations in each species. Isopropanol significantly increased skin deposition in all species when compared to the oil formulation. Absorption was significantly greater in bovine skin than in porcine skin for the isopropanol-containing formulations, but there were no significant species differences for the oil formulation. While significant levels (11.69-50.23% dose) remained on the skin surface, the highest levels deposited in viable skin were observed in caprine skin (28.09% dose) and the lowest levels were in porcine skin (1.50% dose) which could lead to systemic absorption. In summary, these 8-h experiments demonstrated that the alcohol-based formulations compared to oil-based formulations enhanced abamectin absorption and skin deposition in several animal species, and this effect is more likely to be observed in ruminant species than in porcine species.     

Technical note: time-resolved fluoro-immunometric assay for intact insulin in livestock species

Insulin levels in ruminants are often very low and hence are difficult to measure with commercially available RIA kits designed for use with human serum or plasma samples. Those assays may also have high cross-reactivity with nonintact insulin. An assay originally invented for human insulin and based on a pair of monoclonal antibodies binding to specific parts of the insulin molecule was further developed and validated for use with bovine or porcine plasma or serum. The assay is of the sandwich type, with the catching antibody coated to the solid phase of microtiter plate wells and with the detecting antibody labeled with europium, and measured as time-delayed fluorescence. The assay protocol includes an incubation step in which plasma samples of 50 microL are incubated with buffer and detecting antibody for 3 h in coated wells, followed by an enhancement step in which the fluorescence from the europium label is stabilized before measurement. This gives a sensitivity of 3 pmol/L and a possible working range up 16,700 pmol/L. There is no cross-reactivity with pro-insulin or IGF-I. Calibrators are prepared in heat-inactivated serum from the relevant species. Porcine and bovine insulin have different calibration curves; porcine insulin is more reactive and has a higher background than bovine insulin. Validation results show low CV values, parallel dilution of samples, and a recovery ratio close to unity. Comparison with a commercial RIA shows good agreement, except at low concentrations, at which the RIA determinations are inaccurate. Plasma samples from other domestic species (horse, sheep, goat, and mink) have also been assayed, but it is emphasized that calibrators should be prepared in heat-inactivated serum from the appropriate species, and preferably insulin from that species should be used for calibration.     

Conservation of deduced amino acid sequence of FimH among Escherichia coli of bovine, porcine and avian disease origin

The FimH subunit of type 1 pili mediates adhesion of Escherichia coli to epithelium in different animal hosts. In this study, we sequenced and analyzed the fimH genes of 24 E. coli strains from bovine and porcine clinical cases. The obtained sequences were compared among each other and also with 24 known fimH sequences from avian E. coli strains. This comparison revealed a substantial homology (>99%) among strains from the different animal species origins. Moreover, specific mutations were found, some of which were present more frequently in avian strains or in bovine and porcine strains.     

Are goats naturally resistant to gastric Helicobacter infection?

Gastric Helicobacter species are widespread and have been reported in wild and domestic mammals of different dietary habits such as humans, dogs, cats, macaques, mice, cheetahs, ferrets, swine and cattle. All have been associated with gastric pathologies. Recently, gastric Helicobacter species were shown to be widespread in cattle and swine in Europe, and there is a report of Helicobacter pylori in sheep in Italy. However, there are no reports of Helicobacter infection in the goat, another important domestic animal of human consumption. The aim of our study was to assess whether Helicobacter abomasal infection was common in goats slaughtered for human consumption. Infection was detected through PCR analysis of DNA extracted from gastric biopsies, using genus- and species-specific primers. Bovine and porcine gastric samples were also analyzed as positive controls. None of the 70 goats were positive for Helicobacter spp.; however, Candidatus Helicobacter bovis and Candidatus Helicobacter suis were detected in 85% of the bovine and 45% of the porcine samples, respectively. We discuss the possibility that goats may exhibit natural resistance to abomasal infection by Helicobacter spp.     

Prevalence and identity of cdt-related sequences in necrotoxigenic Escherichia coli

The cytolethal distending toxins (CDT) are responsible for the mitosis block at G2/M and the cycle arrest of cells in culture. Escherichia coli isolated from humans and animals with intestinal and extra-intestinal diseases can be positive for the production of a CDT-like cytopathic effect or for the presence of cdt-related genes. The purpose of this study was to compare the prevalence and the identity of cdt-related sequences in necrotoxigenic E. coli (NTEC). A collection of 98 bovine type 2 NTEC (NTEC2) and 45 bovine, 20 canine, 3 feline, 65 human and 129 porcine type 1 NTEC (NTEC1) isolates was studied by colony hybridisation and PCR assays specific for the cdtB genes encoding the B sub-unit of the CDT-I, CDT-II, CDT-III and CDT-IV toxins produced by E. coli. cdtB-III sequences were frequent amongst bovine NTEC2, since 83% of these isolates were positive by colony hybridisation and/or PCR, whereas cdtB-related sequences were rare amongst NTEC1, since only 2 bovine (4%), 3 canine (15%), 10 human (15%) and 13 porcine (10%) of these isolates were positive. The 28 probe-positive NTEC1 harboured cdtB-IV sequences (13 isolates), cdtB-I sequences (10 isolates), or still unidentified cdt-related sequences (5 isolates). After comparison with previously published and unpublished results of phenotypic assay on cell cultures, existence of other cdt-related sequences is suggested amongst NTEC1. The differences between NTEC1 and NTEC2 in their CDT profiles may have implication for the pathogenesis of those two classes of pathogenic E. coli.     

Oral ingestion of colostrum alters intestinal transforming growth factor-beta receptor intensity in newborn pigs

Mammary gland secretion contains numerous bioactive compounds including transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β). The concentrations of such bioactive compounds are usually much higher in colostrum compared with those in mature milk. To investigate possible effects of colostrum-borne TGF-β on the suckling animal, newborn piglets were naturally suckled or bottle-fed with porcine colostrum, bovine colostrum, porcine milk, infant formula or water for 24 h and intestinal TGF-β receptor intensity was assessed using an immunohistochemical staining technique in combination with computerized image analysis. The intestinal structure was also analyzed by morphometric analysis technique. It was observed that newborn pigs naturally suckled or bottle-fed with porcine or bovine colostrum had significantly greater intestinal villous height and crypt depth when compared with those fed with porcine milk, infant formula or water (p < 0.05). The immunostaining intensity for TGF-β receptors in the intestinal epithelium, particularly on the apical membrane of the villous epithelium, was significantly lower in naturally suckled or colostrum fed piglets compared with that in piglets fed with milk, infant formula or water (p < 0.05). Such decline in receptor intensity is likely the result of receptor internalization and degradation following exposure to colostrum-borne TGF-β. These findings suggest that colostrum-borne TGF-β can modulate intestinal TGF-β signalling pathways and may play a role in postnatal adaptation of the gut in newborn pigs.     

Molecular cloning and characterization of equine NK-lysin

NK-lysin is an antimicrobial peptide of cytotoxic and NK lymphocytes that has powerful antibacterial properties as well as antitumoral activity. Here we report the full-length cDNA and deduced amino acid sequence for equine NK-lysin. Equine NK-lysin is 67% identical to porcine NK-lysin, 53% identical to bovine NK-lysin and 41% identical to granulysin in amino acid sequence. Complete conservation of cysteine residues between equine, bovine and porcine NK-lysin suggests similar disulfide bonding patterns among these peptides. Equine NK-lysin has the most positive surface charge when compared with other homologues. Similar to expression profiles in other species, equine NK-lysin is constitutively transcribed in various lymphocytes that include CD4+ and CD8+ staining cells. These findings suggest that equine NK-lysin, similar in cDNA sequence to the porcine, bovine and human homologues may play a role in antimicrobial defense.     

Comparative scanning electron microscope analysis of the enamel of permanent human,bovine and porcine teeth

BackgroundBovine and porcine teeth are often used in in vitro experiments as substitutes of human teeth.ObjectivesThe aim of the present study was to perform a comparative analysis of enamel morphology of permanent human, bovine and porcine teeth under the scanning electron microscope.MethodsAs many as 10 human, 10 bovine, and 10 porcine teeth were studied. All the teeth were sectioned and the halves were randomly divided into 2 groups according to the examined tissue (vestibular enamel at the mid-height of the dental crown and in the cervical area). Human and bovine enamel was etched for 15 sec and porcine enamel for 30 sec. The scanning electron microscope analysis was performed. The length and width of enamel prisms were determined with the “Met-Ilo” 1.1 computer program.ResultsAll enamel samples revealed the same etching pattern—Silverstone''s type 2. Bovine enamel showed a similar porosity and the amount of interprismatic enamel compared to human enamel while the amount and width of interprismatic enamel bands in porcine enamel were evidently greater. The shape of the porcine prisms was visually similar to human prisms, although dimensions were significantly different. However, bovine prisms differed in form and appeared to be distinctly elongated.ConclusionsReported findings indicate that the results of experimental studies carried out on bovine and porcine enamel should not be compared with the results obtained on human enamel.