By,For and Of the People

Abstract

This paper describes the development of two community-managed protected areas in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. Specifically, it focuses on the diverse factors that have allowed the community-based reserves initiatives to unfold and analyzes some of the social-institutional structures that communities have constructed for autochthonous management of land and resources. The information for this paper was gathered through institutional analysis employing semi-structured, open-ended interviews with administrators, manager-practitioners, local farmers, and community representatives from the Chimalapas and Sierra Juárez regions of Oaxaca. The results of this study support the conclusion that, given strong social institutions, local communities can successfully form management partnerships for forest conservation and autochthonous development.     

Local Knowledge of Alternative Forest Resources

SUMMARY

Attempts to impose regional conservation strategies from the top down without local participation are doomed to failure. Even so, this does not negate the critical importance of promoting international transboundary conservation. This paper draws on a research project which examined transboundary cooperation in the 136 complexes of protected areas that adjoin across international boundaries, examples of internationally divided ecosystems. The results of an international survey demonstrate that such transboundary cooperation is already occurring in 82% of the cases, although most of it is at relatively low levels. Analysis reveals that numerous different variables correlate with cooperation but, not surprisingly, the most important ones are distinctly human variables relating to human relationships. This strengthens the proposal that sustainability of conservation projects depends on inclusion of all stakeholders and development of a supportive constituency. While international organizations play crucial roles in educating, equipping, and facilitating transboundary conservation, they cannot impose it. International contributions are instrumental, but ultimate sustained success depends on the day-to-day involvement and efforts of those on the local level who must do the interacting.     

Self-Management as the Goal of Regional Conservation Strategies

SUMMARY

Members of Eco Bolivia have watched the process of development and conservation unfold in northwestern Bolivia over the last 40 years or so. After a series of destructive development strategies, the indigenous people of northwestern Bolivia have shown great interest in moving towards sustainable development and conservation of the incredibly rich ecosystems of the area, especially in and around Madidi National Park. Madidi is the heart of a mosaic of protected areas and indigenous territories in Bolivia and Peru. The diversity of the region has attracted the attention of national and foreign governments, multilateral agencies, and international NGOs, all of whom claim a great interest in conservation, and usually emphasize the importance of working with local people toward the ultimate goal of self-management. However, over the years it has become clear that the government is much more interested in quick profits than in long-term sustainability, and powerful NGOs often pay only lip service to real community involvement. Largely due to the recognition the area has received, conservation efforts are now plagued by corruption, competition for funding, inefficiency, a lack of accountability, and a top-down management approach that severely disempowers local peoples. The ultimate solution may require a system by which NGOs and the government are held responsible for a commitment to local self-management and involvement in all stages of conservation and development projects.     

Planning Protected Areas Across Boundaries

SUMMARY

This article, in two parts, starts by examining the process at play in the definition of a coherent planning unit for protected areas. The argument centers around the differences between the natural and social science approaches to defining the boundaries to such areas, indicating how the two have influenced planning. The difficult challenge of combining both visions is stressed, and illustrated by a discussion of the concepts of region and bioregion. The second part of the paper examines the biosphere reserve model and its application to areas spanning international boundaries. The five existing transboundary biosphere reserves, all situated in Europe, illustrate some of the issues facing transboundary planning.     

Developments in Swedish forest policy and administration – from a “policy of restriction” toward a “policy of cooperation”

Abstract

New tools and forms of cooperation at the landscape level are needed in order for forestry and environmental conservation to co-exist in areas with many land owners. Awareness has existed for several years in Sweden that cooperation at the landscape level is essential for protecting areas of high environmental value. This awareness has come to expression in several projects and initiatives. One of these projects is the Östra Vätterbranterna Partnership, a successful example of the new orientation toward environmental management as formulated in the government bill Sustainable protection of nature areas: new working methods with a focus on collaboration and increased dialog by involving more actors and utilizing a greater combination of steering instruments. This development resonates with the growing trend toward deregulation and less state intervention in environmental management, implying a stronger emphasis on new governance structures and market-driven processes. This paper examines the preconditions for a development toward governance-oriented forms of steering in the area of environmental policy and law, with specific emphasis on the protection of forestry areas with high environmental value. Paralleling this development, the transformation of environmental public administration is analyzed, using a model representing three different perspectives on administration's role, values and meaning, showing state action's progressive transition from “rowing” to “steering” to “serving” and facilitating.     

Wintertime Patterns of Chlorophyll Fluorescence in Red Spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.) Foliage

SUMMARY

For twenty years, Lesotho and South Africa have engaged in a co-operative program for the conservation and development of the shared Maloti-Drakensberg Mountains, also known as Ukhahlamba or “barrier of spears.” A history of conflict has left its mark on the landscape and the communities which live there. The area has been marginalized by inappropriate land settlement and agricultural practices and there has been ongoing illegal traffic in cattle and drugs. Impacts include the degradation of biodiversity, unsustainable land use practices and, most importantly, a lack of development and economic alternatives.

The area is internationally significant not only because of its unique biodiversity and cultural resources but also as the primary source of water for the southern African sub-region. A process of transboundary engagement between the two countries has intervened in the cycle of degradation, and seeks to build a vibrant transfrontier economy, which overcomes barriers and engenders cooperation and development. The future agenda encompasses key actions relating to biodiversity, community and economics, including institutional development, capacity-building processes and the legal means for creating and sustaining transboundary cooperation. This transboundary regional landscape strategy both informs and is informed by global best practice.     

Participatory Conservation in the Condor Bioreserve,Ecuador

Abstract

The Condor Bioreserve (CBR) project seeks to promote community-based and participatory forms of conservation at four protected areas in Ecuador. This chapter provides a review of the academic and practitioner literature on participatory conservation, and explores the kinds of participation which occur in the CBR. Three assertions are central to the paper. First, the ways communities are represented by project documents and project planners condition the outcomes of participatory projects. Second, the intense focus of participatory approaches on the community level diverts attention from political and economic realities which constrain the ability of community members to actively conserve natural resources. And third, the chronological point at which communities and local people become involved in decision processes affects the kinds of participation in conservation projects; because problem definition is a key moment in which various participants establish basic assumptions about the nature of problems, the exclusion of local communities from the initial phases of program planning conditions the ways in which communities are likely to participate in conservation efforts. The paper addresses these issues by looking at the cases of management planning activities, the water fund (FONAG), extension efforts in the Sinangoé community, and the Local Participation in the Management of Protected Areas (PALOMAP) external review of participation in the CBR initiative.     

Creating Incentives for Beneficial Private Land Management in Protected Areas

Abstract

Land-use practices on private properties that abut protected areas can have a significant impact on the conservation goals of a park or reserve. In Ecuador, many of the protected areas have private properties within their boundaries, and several share buffer zones with sizeable communities. This paper (1) evaluates incentives for private landowners to assist with meeting the conservation goals of the Condor Bioreserve, and (2) makes recommendations on mechanisms and incentives that may be the most appropriate for generating a commitment from private landowners to manage for conservation values. Currently, the strategy to promote compatible management on private properties relies heavily on voluntary efforts by landowners, with only a small number of programs offering financial or material incentives in return. To create greater long-term stability in land use around protected areas, programs need to create incentives for private landowners to formalize a commitment to long-term sustainable management. We recommend (1) conservation easements and (2) conservation payments, and in special cases (3) private reserves. Solid commitments to manage private lands for conservation effectively extend protected area boundaries and allow management plans to better incorporate the ecosystem role and services that private lands provide.     

Monitoring Sustainable Forest Management in the Pacific Rim Region

Summary

The Pacific Rim is rich in forest resources. It contains the world's largest contiguous forest areas, high levels of biodiversity, millions of forest-dependent people, and the world's leading wood-product exporting and importing nations. However, because of a range of issues, the Pacific Rim region is also experiencing high rates of deforestation and forest degradation. An important step in addressing these issues and moving toward sustainable forest management is improved monitoring and information reporting at the local, national, and international levels. A number of criteria and indicators initiatives have been developed throughout the countries of the Pacific Rim. These have ranged from international processes to local initiatives such as forest certification. Although there is considerable variability in the issues facing forest policy makers in the countries of the Pacific Rim, it is often expected that criteria and indicators will reflect a level of comparability. This paper presents the results of a comparative analysis designed to identify similarities and differences in sustainable forest management criteria and indicators initiatives in the Pacific Rim region. When considered in the context of globalization, the research findings support international efforts to encourage comparability in sustainable forest management-related monitoring and information reporting.     

Perspectives on Community-Based Forest Management in Oaxaca,Mexico

Abstract

This compilation of papers explores various aspects related to community-based natural resource management in a comparative analysis of two communities located in different regions of Oaxaca, Mexico: the Chimalapas and the Sierra Norte. The contrasting histories, cultures, and forest ecosystems in the two communities have led to diverse approaches to managing their natural resources. Our analysis highlights the existence of underlying principles driving participatory management approaches, as well as the importance of adapting these approaches to site-specific local conditions. One theme addressed in these papers is the development of appropriate silvicultural techniques that incorporate both the local peoples' needs and experiences with the ecological characteristics of the forest ecosystem. Other land use activities are then discussed that affect management decisions in the regions such as cattle ranching and the collection of medicinal plants within the context of managing for sustainable forest and human ecosystems in the two regions. Finally, the role of community organization and the formation of partnerships with external institutions in strengthening local management and conservation initiatives are also considered. Together, these papers provide a commentary on the potentials and constraints of emerging participatory approaches to managing high priority conservation areas, and which are providing new alternatives where previous models have often failed.     

The Practice of Stewardship

Abstract

Community-based ecosystem management efforts are proliferating around the United States. While these projects differ greatly in style, substance, players, and places, they share common elements; the philosophy of stewardship appears to be one of the most powerful. The effort to promote stewardship of local ecosystems has shown remarkable power to engage broad and diverse interests. The authors hypothesize that the concept of stewardship is central to many community-based ecosystem management efforts, acting as the ‘glue’ that holds these efforts together. This chapter explores the emerging philosophy of stewardship, its defining characteristics, and how it differs for community-based ecosystem management efforts. It examines a framework for stewardship at the practitioner's level, with an emphasis on key concerns local practitioners need to address in their projects. The chapter closes with an examination of some of the largest challenges ahead-consistency and accountability, the economics of stewardship, and the need to build a favorable institutional environment-in the continued development of stewardship as an organizing principle for community-based ecosystem management.     

State Failure,Corruption, and Warfare: Challenges for Forest Policy

ABSTRACT

Forest policies are failing in large areas of the world. In too many nations, forest area is declining, timber revenues are not capturing actual economic values, management plans—where they exist at all—are ignored, and ecologically significant areas are being degraded. In many places, public lands and even national parks cannot be protected against encroachment. Bitter local controversies over forest tenure and use rights persist. In many places, the underlying preconditions for sustainability do not exist in the face of state weakness and failure, corruption, and war. States generally recognized as failed or fragile encompass 15% of the world's forest. A cross tab of forest area (2005) against the Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index shows that nearly half of the world's forest is in nations with what TI calls “rampant” corruption. This includes several major nations with extensive forests and important biodiversity hotspots. An encouraging upsurge of willingness to face this issue has occurred in the development community. But uprooting corruption and fixing state failure is easier said than done. Considering this fact, the outlook for more than half of the world's forest area—important to indigenous and forest-dependent people, and containing critical reserves of biodiversity—is grim.     

Community Dependency on Forest Resources in West Java,Indonesia

Abstract

Policies aimed at the exclusion of local communities from forest management are inappropriate, especially in a densely populated area with a low level of land ownership. Here we demonstrate that termination of the Tumpang Sari program, which allowed local communities access to areas for controlled cultivation in several parts of the state forest area in West Java, Indonesia, did not cease illegal cultivation of the forestland. Moreover, illegal cultivation continues to be conducted by many people. This has created not only a land degradation problem but also has affected other forest resource users, the fuelwood collectors and the dairy cattle farmers. Therefore, the re-involvement of local communities in better forest management is required to avoid further environmental degradation as well as enhance poverty alleviation programs.     

Strategies for Managing Protected Areas

Abstract

Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) has assumed increasing importance in protected area management throughout the developing world. Largely a response to previous state-centered protectionist policies, CBNRM seeks to simultaneously promote community development and biodiversity conservation. Where human populations exist within state-controlled protected areas, successful application of CBNRM requires a legal basis for community participation in resource decision-making. Community management agreements (CMAs) are one contractual mechanism that can provide this foundation. Their goals are to: (1) resolve issues of land tenure; (2) devolve authority and guarantee rights of access to communities; and (3) establish conditions that promote subsequent management planning and activities. This chapter examines three case studies involving the use of CMAs within the Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve (RECAY), part of the Condor Bioreserve of central Ecuador. CMAs were found to be successful in achieving the first two goals mentioned above, but had mixed success in achieving the third. CMAs should: (1) devolve decision-making, implementation, and conflict resolution powers to communities; (2) clearly define rights and responsibilities for all parties; and (3) guarantee continual government oversight and support. Although their applicability may be limited to certain circumstances, criteria should be developed to guide their future implementation in Ecuador and internationally.     

Experiences from developing an integrated land-use planning approach for protected areas in the Lao PDR

While early efforts to establish protected areas often excluded local people, modern approaches in many countries now seek to involve local communities in ways that are appropriate to the objectives for the protected area. In the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), a protected area management system was established in 1993. In many cases, the new protected areas had land-use conflicts with inhabitants who depended on the areas for their living. This study was undertaken in a protected area in the northwest of the Lao PDR. The primary objective was to identify and gain experiences from a feasible approach for improvement and implementation of protected area management with a positive interaction between people and the natural environment. An integrated land-use planning approach was adopted. It included participatory methods for data capture and analysis, including the use of a simple simulation model, the ‘Area Production Model’ (APM) aiming at evaluating different options for land use and primary production. The outcome of the study was positive in the sense that this integrated land-use planning approach was found to be well adapted to the needs of the protected area management system.     

Commimity-Based Ecotourism and Sustainability

Abstract

Tourism is one of the fastest growing industries in the global economy. Ecotourism, a sector of the larger tourism industry, focuses on protecting natural ecosystems while bringing benefits to local communities. To be sustainable, ecotourism projects must be carefully managed so that visitors do not damage isolated natural areas and cultures. Projects must be continually monitored to ensure they are run sustainably. Here, we establish a framework of sustainability indicators for evaluating community-based ecotourism projects. We then evaluate six ecotourism projects around Parque Internacional La Amistad, an international biosphere shared by Panama and Costa Rica. Evaluations are based on field visits conducted as part of a rapid assessments course at the Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. Finally, we recommend that the sustainability of projects can be increased through goal-setting, establishment of partnerships, and monitoring and evaluation of established projects.     

Fifty Years of Landscape Transformation in Managed Forests of Southern Finland

Intensive forest management has changed both local and regional characteristics of Fennoscandian forest. However, quantitative documentation of landscape transformations is rare. In this study, five forest landscapes were examined in order to define and quantify forest landscape transformation in southern Finland from the 1940s to the 1970s and 1990s. These areas of 140-200 km² contained both private and state-owned forests. Digital aerial photographs of each area were classified into no-canopy forest (clear-cut and seedling stands, open mires) and closed-canopy forest (young and mature stands). Patch density, mean patch size, largest patch index and edge density calculated for closed-canopy patches indicated fragmentation from the 1940s to the 1970s and recovery from the 1970s to the 1990s. Trends were very similar in both ownership groups. Thus, fragmentation of closed-canopy forests has not progressed continuously in southern Finland, but shows different patterns depending on the period. However, the recovery observed between the 1970s and 1990s does not necessarily mean an increased abundance of the natural old-growth areas that are needed to host many of the currently threatened species.     

Ecologically Sustainable Land Use Planning in the Russian Lake Baikal Region

Abstract

Efforts at achieving sustainable forest management throughout the world often appear to pit global economic and development interests against those who seek preservation and environmental protection of the Faith's resources. Such conflicts, where they do arise, are often unmindful of the full range of land use parameters which must be taken into account when developing sustainable forest models on a regional, if not subconlinenlal scale the scale on which many multinational corporate entities now base their business planning. In fact, sustainable forest resource planning in the global marketplace must be integrated with regional sustainable land use, cultural, ecosystem and economic planning if the myriad forest attributes are to be maintained for future generations. The proposed paper would describe comprehensive sustainable land use planning being implemented in the Lake Baikal region of south central Siberia, Russia, which incorporates the full range of forest utilization from wild forest preserves to ecologically sustainable forest management for wood products. This paper describes similar projects being undertaken by Ecologically Sustainable Development, Inc. (ESD) in Mongolia, the Altai region of Russia, the Ussuri River Basin of Far Eastern Russia and China. Nicaragua and British Columbia, finally, the authors make recommendations key to achieving sustainable forest policy on the federal, state, regional and local levels.     

The competitiveness of the phytosociological attributes of the protected areas in Bangladesh with that in the other tropical countries

ABSTRACT

Many forest reserves in Bangladesh have been converted to protected areas (PAs) to conserve the forests resources from further depletion. This study has investigated if such initiatives have improved the state of biodiversity of these PAs amid tremendous anthropogenic pressure on forest resources. We have assessed the phytosociological attributes of the PAs in the country through a case study at Kaptai National Park (KNP) and compared the attributes with those of the adjacent areas and of the tropical forests across the world. We have identified 52 species belonging to 45 genera and 28 families. The most dominant species in KNP was Dipterocarpus spp. and the adjacent area was dominated by Tectona grandis. Unexpectedly, the Shannon-Wiener index of KNP has dropped down from 2.98 in 2000 to 0.90 in 2014. However, in terms of relative density, relative dominance, and relative frequency, KNP was better than the adjacent areas. In contrast, the mean Shannon-Wiener index in KNP (0.90) was smaller than that in the tropical countries (2.99). We recommend strengthening effective comanagement of PAs and enabling nonforestry income generation activities for the forest-dependent people so that the biodiversity of the PAs can be enriched while people’s livelihoods are ensured.     

The Costa Rican Association for the Study of Native Forestry Species (CANS)

SUMMARY

In the Gran Sabana of Venezuela and the North Rupununi Savannah of Guyana, protected areas have been established primarily for purposes of conservation. However, both Canaima National Park in Venezuela and the Iwokrama International Centre for Rainforest Conservation and Development in Guyana are multiple use areas where a variety of resource use occurs and/or is planned. Shifting cultivation by the indigenous population is currently both the most common use of the forest and the use of longest duration in both areas. Surveys were conducted of paired primary and secondary forests in order to test the hypothesis that traditional, dispersed shifting cultivation with long fallows and no post-cultivation disturbance is sustainable, resulting in the eventual re-establishment of diverse secondary forests. Interviews and observations of agricultural practices and surveys of agricultural fields were conducted to determine the contemporary forest use practices and the extent to which traditional practices have changed. Results indicate that even dispersed, long fallow shifting cultivation requires careful management and several disturbance-free decades before diversity levels in secondary forests approach those in old growth. Further, that the process of integration and cultural “development” has destabilized this traditionally sustainable system in some areas. A central assumption of the paper is that with an understanding of the impacts of shifting cultivation and of the conditions under which it is sustainable, informed decisions about protected area management can be made. The data provide valuable and hitherto missing information on the levels of forest disturbance that can be sustained in the two protected areas while still meeting conservation goals.