Policy Alternatives for Improving Markets for Water Quality and Quantity in the Panama Canal Watershed

Summary

Markets for ecosystem services are receiving ever-increasing attention from the global environmental community as a mechanism to conserve and protect environmental resources. Formal markets for the selling and buying of ecosystem services emerge as institutions and regulatory frameworks are developed and legitimized. For a small country with relatively abundant natural resources, such as Panama, ecosystem service markets have significant potential to provide landowners with a sustainable stream of income while facilitating national environmental protection goals. This paper takes one ecosystem service in Panama-water supply-and assesses a host of policy alternatives to improve markets for water in Panama. The analysis suggests that secured long-term financing mechanisms and strengthened institutional roles are important elements in shaping stakeholder behavior and advancing water markets in Panama.     

国外生态系统服务概念在森林旅游中的应用分析

通过人类需求反映自然资源的价值、连接自然环境和人类社会的生态系统服务理论与方法已成为自然资源管理研究的一个重要方向。分析国际上生态系统服务概念和方法在森林旅游规划、森林旅游管理和森林旅游的影响评估中的研究和应用可以发现,将生态系统服务概念纳入森林旅游能够更直观地体现森林旅游使用者和管理者与森林旅游区域环境之间的关系,也更有利于森林旅游可持续发展目标的实现。文中预测,随着基于生态系统服务的评估和预测方法的成熟,生态系统服务概念在森林旅游中具有广阔的应用前景。     

SECTION 4:INTEGRATED ASSESSMENTS

Abstract

Reforestation of degraded lands is occurring on a limited basis in portions of the Panama Canal Watershed (PCW). In theory, markets for ecosystem services could encourage more extensive reforestation and ensure that reforestation efforts provide more than just timber. The most relevant ecosystem markets for the PCW are carbon sequestration, watershed services, and four biodiversity markets-bioprospecting, certification of biodiversity friendly products, ecotourism, and existence value. This paper examines the possibility for a land owner or land manager to participate in two or more of these markets. Two land use scenarios-native forest plantation and small-holder agroforestry-emerge as likely candidates for participation in multiple ecosystem service markets. These scenarios are examined to determine whether the strength of incentives to provide a bundle of timber and ecosystem services is sufficient to encourage expansion of these land uses with the Panama Canal Watershed.     

森林可持续经营问题探讨

阐述了森林可持续经营提出的背景；论述了保持森林生态系统的生产力可再生能力，维护森林生态系统健康以及保护生物多样性是森林可持续经营的三个关键因素；并提出了实现森林可持续经营主要对策。     

热带海岛旅游服务价值评价体系及计算方法

热带海岛由于其独特的地理位置以及丰富的物种资源,使其旅游服务价值不同于一般的生态系统服务价值中的旅游服务价值。本文从生态系统服务价值评价指标体系中,提炼出与旅游者和旅游活动直接相关的,能被旅游者直接利用的生态系统服务作为热带海岛的旅游服务评价指标;同时根据热带海岛的特点,对以往的计算方法进行修正,得到热带海岛的旅游服务价值评价体系以及计算方法。本文区别于之前研究将旅游服务价值作为生态系统服务评价指标中的一部分,而是将其单独作为一类进行核算。参考前人的研究,本文将旅游服务价值评价指标体系分为林地、草地、耕地、湿地、滩涂、建设用地、水体7种用地类型和气体调节、气候调节、食物供给、环境净化、生物多样性、休闲娱乐、文化7种生态系统服务来进行计算。对热带海岛旅游服务价值进行评估,可以衡量生态系统为旅游发展所做出的贡献,也可以提高公众的生态意识,同时也为生态补偿提供理论依据。     

浅议乡村生态旅游对生物多样性保护的影响及对策——以昆明金殿周边社区为例

生物多样性保护是乡村生态旅游业健康可持续发展的基础。文章以昆明金殿周边社区为例,在介绍当地乡村生态旅游现状的基础上,分析了乡村旅游中存在的自然水系遭到破坏、林下产品过度采摘、汽车和生活排污、外来物种入侵等对生物多样性的影响,据此提出了科学规划、生态修复、严格执法及环境监测、发展生态农业、开展环境意识教育等对策。     

气候变化对森林生态系统的影响及应对气候变化的森林可持续发展

森林生态系统是人类社会赖以生存的重要生态系统类型。然而,人类活动所引起的温室效应及其造成的全球气候变化对森林生态系统的负面影响正越来越引起全世界的关注。文中系统地阐述了全球气候变化事件对森林生态系统的植被分布、迁移趋势、适应能力、火灾状况、虫害爆发、木材产量和生物多样性等诸方面所产生的重要影响。另外,森林生态系统在减缓全球气候变化的过程中发挥着极为重要的作用。文中从森林可持续发展的角度系统地分析了应对气候变化应采取的森林可持续发展的相关策略与措施,并建议通过实时监控、及时防治、科学指导、全球合作等手段进一步增强森林生态系统的适应性和减缓全球气候变化的能力。     

尖峰岭国家森林公园旅游环境容量分析

在分析环境容量相关理论的基础上,针对尖峰岭国家森林公园分区采用面积法、游线法、卡口法估测景区旅游环境容量;经测算景区日环境容量为6705人次,年环境容量为1804000人次;为了确保景区生态环境质量不下降、旅游资源和环境不“超负荷”运转,实现旅游资源可持续利用和旅游业可持续发展,景区年游客容量以不超过180万人次为好;...     

湿地旅游可持续发展研究

在可持续发展思想的基础上提出了湿地旅游这一概念 ,分析了湿地旅游发展与湿地环境保护之间的关系 ;针对湿地生物多样性、景观多样性、文化多样性等特点对湿地的旅游价值作了进一步的探讨 ,从湿地旅游可持续发展角度 ,对湿地旅游发展规划 ,湿地旅游立法 ,建立服务网络 ,旅游管理 ,政府决策与社区参与 ,湿地环境影响评价等方面 ,提出对策。     

洪湖湿地生态系统服务价值研究概述

洪湖湿地是中国第七大淡水湖和湖北省最大湖泊,它是荆江和长江的水位调节器。洪湖湿地是一种重要的湿地生态系统,具有多种效益。生态功能主要有涵养水源与调蓄洪水、调节气候、降解污染、固定CO_2与释放O_2、控制侵蚀与保护土壤、营养循环和生物栖息地。直接的产品用途主要有供水与储水、湿地动植物产品、能源生产、水运、休闲与旅游和研究与教育基地。洪湖湿地属性主要有生物多样性和社会文化重要性。尽管过去曾有研究其功能价值,但是仍有不足,需进一步加大研究,为洪湖湿地保护与恢复提供数据支撑,实现湿地资源合理利用。     

Ecosystem services of fast-growing tree plantations: A case study on integrating social valuations with land-use changes in Uruguay

The rapidly increasing area of tree plantations, especially in the tropics and subtropics, has raised expectations and concerns as to their impact on ecosystem services. We studied the effect of the establishment of eucalyptus and pine plantations on local people's social valuations of ecosystem services in a case study in Uruguay. We also assessed the social and political restrictions that might limit the establishment of new markets for ecosystem services. Our study showed that the rapid change in land use in Uruguay over the past 20 years, from grassland to plantations, has affected people's perceptions of landscape's capacity to produce ecosystem services. The ecosystem services of plantations that showed the greatest discrepancy between local people's valuations and both recognition by experts and current scientific evidence were biodiversity, water effects, and carbon cycling. We found that in particular regulating services, and some provisioning ones, are quite well recognized by substance specialists, but are sometimes rather unfamiliar to the general public. The proper planning of plantations may improve the provision of ecosystem services, such as biodiversity enhancement, wood availability for fire and energy, water quality, and carbon sequestration, while at the same time diluting some others. The selection of ecosystem services to be taken into account in plantation management depends both on local cultural values and on the particular environmental pressures considered to be most in need of mitigation.     

珠海市赤花山森林公园旅游环境质量评价指标体系研究

以旅游环境质量及其地域组合形式理论为指导,运用层次分析法(AHP)、Delphi法、多层次模糊综合评判法,从旅游景观环境、旅游自然生态环境、旅游服务环境、旅游社会文化环境及旅游信息环境5个方面,筛选出27个指标构建了旅游环境质量评价指标体系,进而对珠海市赤花山森林公园旅游环境质量进行分析与评价。结果表明,赤花山森林公园以旅游自然生态环境为主要特色,具有较高的旅游观赏和旅游文化价值,旅游环境质量总体较好。提出强化对自然生态环境的保护和修复力度建议,以实现赤花山森林公园的协调、健康、可持续发展。     

REDD+ initiatives for safeguarding biodiversity and ecosystem services: harmonizing sets of standards for national application

In the context of growing concerns about environmental aspects of reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (acronym REDD+), we conducted a comparative analysis of three sets of globally-applicable standards and one instrument of REDD+ initiatives for safeguarding biodiversity and ecosystem services: (1) social and environmental principles and criteria, (2) REDD+ social and environmental standards, (3) climate, community, and biodiversity project design standards, and (4) strategic environmental and social assessment. We found that their projected proximal outcomes for biodiversity and ecosystem service treatments, and approaches to achieve them, are not uniform (e.g., differences in spatial coverage for expecting positive impacts, prioritized REDD+ activities, and expected level of rigor in biodiversity and ecosystem service monitoring). We also found that all four include identification of the priority areas for biodiversity and ecosystem services, plus monitoring and mitigation of the negative impacts of REDD+ activities. These all require substantial time and resources to fully address what the three standards and the instrument actually stipulate. We thus propose options for harmonizing their use to facilitate scaling-up of efforts to strengthen safeguards, from the project level to the national level, while respecting individual national contexts and taking advantage of each standard’s characteristics.     

Guiding Principles for Small-Scale Forestry in a Watershed of the Venezuelan Andes: Constraints and Opportunities

In the Venezuelan Andes, some small-scale forest plantations have become an important resource basis for forest management. In this paper, the forestry management progress in the Mucujún river watershed is analyzed. Constraints and opportunities for sustainable management within national policies, local regulations, environmental features and social benefits are also examined. Plantation assessment, and biophysical, legal and socioeconomics information, are used for guiding small-scale forestry practices in this watershed, with emphasis on the main principles of landscape management. These plantations have become an important part of the socio-ecological landscapes with potential for wood production—in the context of low intensity and low environmental impact environmental services and amenity—because of the two protected areas within the watershed. Current forest stand conditions, however, reflect that management requires improvement. Furthermore, the analysis suggests that improvement of local livelihoods may be achieved with a small-scale forestry approach, taking properly into account the basic criteria of social involvement and management of planted forests, while maintaining ecosystem services including biodiversity and water supply.     

Improving Markets for Ecosystem Services

Abstract

Panama contains some of the most productive and diverse ecosystems in the world, and receives many benefits from the natural services provided by those ecosystems. Yet formal markets for ecosystem services in Panama are poorly developed. We assume that functioning markets for ecosystem services would partially counter development pressures on Panama's natural forests and ecosystems, and propose a suite of policy alternatives that could help develop such markets with the expectation that revenues would fund conservation and restoration efforts. These recommendations fall into five broad categories: (1) increase conservation of existing forests; (2) promote reforestation; (3) strengthen institutional capacity; (4) lower transaction costs; and (5) build the Panama brand for environmental services. A variety of fiscal, legal, organizational, and information-based approaches are recommended. In addition, we recommend convening a national Ecosystem Services Task-Force to organize diverse stakeholders and implement policy alternatives deemed most appropriate for advancing market development. We emphasize policy alternatives that are consonant with political and economic conditions in the country, that leverage outside funding, that recognize political feasibility, and that build upon existing legal and institutional frameworks.     

Using the high conservation value forest concept and Pareto optimization to identify areas maximizing biodiversity and ecosystem services in cork oak landscapes

Montados are silvo-pastoral systems, typical of the western Mediterranean Basin. When well managed, these ecosystems provide relevant ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation. In the northern part of the Mediterranean Basin, cork oak areas are mainly privately owned and a source of income to landowners, chiefly through cork and livestock production. Sustainable use is essential to maintain the ecological sustainability and socio-economic viability of these ecosystems. Biodiversity conservation and non-provisioning ecosystem services may generate additional incentives promoting sustainable use and conservation of montados, but require adequate mapping and identification. The high conservation value forest (HCVF) framework allows systematic inventory of biodiversity and non-provisioning ecosystem services and is widely applied in forest ecosystems. Here we exemplify the application of HCVF to the cork oak landscape of southern Portugal using a WebGIS tool that integrates the HCVF framework, in conjunction with Pareto optimization, to identify areas important for the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services. We present a case study using threatened bird and reptile species, as examples of biodiversity attributes, and carbon storage and water recharge rate of aquifers, as examples of ecosystem services attributes. We identify those areas in a cork oak landscape of southern Portugal where biodiversity and ecosystem services attributes are optimized. These areas can be prioritized for implementing conservation mechanisms, such as payment for ecosystem services, to promote sustainable forest management.     

Ecosystem services assessment using a valuation framework for the Bangladesh Sundarbans: livelihood contribution and degradation analysis

The ecosystem services provided by the Bangladesh Sundarbans contribute in various sectors especially to the livelihood of the surrounding peoples, but they are often overlooked in the valuation process. This study investigates the significance of ecosystem services on peoples’ lives and how these services are affected by climate change and other factors. Here an economic valuation framework was used to list the ecosystem services provided by this mangrove forest. Direct uses included timber, golpata (Nypa fruticans), honey, beeswax, fish, shrimp larvae and tourism. Indirect uses included carbon storage, protection from cyclones and tidal surges, breeding and nursery grounds for the aquatic species, and biodiversity conservation. This work also found that the ecosystem services were diminished by fresh water flow reduction, overharvesting, sea level rise, salinity increase, poaching, and climate change. In the present context and future scenario, sea level rise will be an important contributor to changes in ecosystem services. But because many factors impact sea level rise, the impact of climate change takes on less importance than many other causes of ecosystem service degradation in the Bangladesh Sundarbans.     

云南引种多年生植物的发展与利用

回顾了从外省和国外引入云南的经济植物,说明由于云南特殊的地理、气候及生物多样性对不同引种植物造成不同的试种结果、发展状况及出现的问题。从而指出在云南高生物多样性森林生态系统条件下,引入外地经济植物种植的有效利用是树种或品种(品系)与当地多样性的适合性配置;可持续发展的种植方式是植物种或品种(品系)的单位种植面积不宜过大,以多种块状混交为宜;减小风险的方式是经10～12年以上的多点种植考验和控制单一种种植比例;发展当地树种风险小,但要保护好当地的生物多样性。     

森林环境服务市场研究现状与展望

在分析国内外森林环境服务市场产生的原因及意义的基础上，概述了森林环境服务市场的研究进展，并对4种森林环境服务市场的实践情况进行了回顾；通过分析目前在森林环境服务市场创建过程中面临的主要问题，对森林环境服务市场研究趋势进行了展望。     

Effects of bioenergy production on environmental sustainability: a preliminary study based on expert opinions in Italy and Turkey

In future decades, initiatives on biomass-based energy development in Europe should reduce fossil fuel dependence and help to combat climate change as required by the conference of the parties 21. In this context, forest biomass can play a key role within the bioenergy sector due to its high growth potential. The use of forest biomass for energy has positive and negative effects on other ecosystem services, on stand characteristics, and on forest management practices. The aim of this study is to analyse the effects of forest bioenergy production on six ecosystem services (biodiversity, recreation, landscape aesthetics, carbon sequestration, soil erosion protection, water quality). These effects have been assessed by 80 experts in two countries (Italy and Turkey), considering two different forest management practices (clear-cutting of coppices and woody residue removal after felling in high forests). The results show that coppice clear-cutting has negative effects on almost all ecosystem services according to the experts’ opinions. The highest negative effects are on landscape aesthetics and soil protection. The effects of woody residue removal on biodiversity, carbon sequestration, soil erosion protection, and water quality are considered negative by the experts, while the effects on recreation activities and landscape aesthetics are considered positive. The highest negative effects of this forest management scenario are on soil protection and biodiversity. The experts’ opinions about the effects of forest management practices on ecosystem services can provide information to understand the environmental sustainability of bioenergy development in future years.