An Introduction to Community-Based Ecosystem Management

Abstract

This paper introduces the concept of community-based ecosystem management and explores cases and trends reflecting this emerging approach to natural resource management. It presents the workshop tone as a disciplined inquiry and addresses several questions such as where community-based ecosystem management came from, what it looks like, its potential benefits, and its key challenges.     

Community-Based Ecosystem Monitoring

Abstract

Community-based ecosystem monitoring refers to a range of observation and measurement activities involving participation by community members and designed to learn about ecological and social factors affecting a community. This chapter presents observations from community-based ecosystem monitoring activities throughout the United States. It discusses factors leading to the emergence of community-based ecosystem monitoring, multiparty monitoring and its role in building social capital, the monitoring process, the integration of social and ecological factors, and ongoing challenges in community-based monitoring. Sidebars illustrate the chapter's central themes and lessons with examples from particular community monitoring initiatives. Community-based monitoring has been motivated by concern for special places, in response to perceived environmental threats, and as part of an effort to overcome longstanding conflict between diverse stakeholder groups. Multiparty monitoring has the potential to address each of these needs. Significant challenges include achieving effective, diverse community participation, integrating social indicators into ecosystem monitoring and analysis, identifying an appropriate level of rigor for specific monitoring objectives, and effectively integrating monitoring into an adaptive decisionmaking process.     

The Practice of Stewardship

Abstract

Community-based ecosystem management efforts are proliferating around the United States. While these projects differ greatly in style, substance, players, and places, they share common elements; the philosophy of stewardship appears to be one of the most powerful. The effort to promote stewardship of local ecosystems has shown remarkable power to engage broad and diverse interests. The authors hypothesize that the concept of stewardship is central to many community-based ecosystem management efforts, acting as the ‘glue’ that holds these efforts together. This chapter explores the emerging philosophy of stewardship, its defining characteristics, and how it differs for community-based ecosystem management efforts. It examines a framework for stewardship at the practitioner's level, with an emphasis on key concerns local practitioners need to address in their projects. The chapter closes with an examination of some of the largest challenges ahead-consistency and accountability, the economics of stewardship, and the need to build a favorable institutional environment-in the continued development of stewardship as an organizing principle for community-based ecosystem management.     

Governance and Institutions

Abstract

The institutional and governance issues that facilitate or impede community-based ecosystem management are discussed. Community-based ecosystem management has a variety of institutional models that differ in purpose, history, scope of interest, and capabilities. Several governance issues face these institutions, including: the adequacy of existing laws and policies; the role of government and policy tools such as money, messages, and mandates; mechanisms for cross-jurisdictional management; the effects of organizational culture and resources in organizations such as agencies and science; and power-distribution concerns that have made community-based ecosystem management politically contentious. For each of these issues a vision is presented for enhancing the precepts of community-based ecosystem management to ensure that it serves traditionally underrepresented populations and embodies democratic principles of open public deliberation, inclusiveness, and social justice. A significant number of success stories and innovations in dealing with these issues are documented as are barriers and challenges. Recommendations for addressing these challenges are made. While community-based ecosystem management reflects the Jeffersonian spirit of direct democracy, it also depends on individual civility and cannot be separated from the political pull and tug and the checks and balances of a complex federal system of representative democracy. The ultimate opportunity and challenge for community-based ecosystem management is to explicitly recognize its political dimensions and to continually experiment and innovate in ways to improve American democracy as well as long-term ecological sustainability.     

森林生态系统与生物多样性保护

森林生态系统是地球陆地生态系统的主体,我国具有热带、亚热带、暖温带、温带和寒温带森林生态系统,也是生物物种资源最丰富、最多样的系统。我国森林生态系统有16大类,含185类.它由无数的物种组成,具有复杂的层次结构.巨大的生物产量和强大的物质与能量交换能力,在维持生态平衡方面具有重要的作用。生物物种是经过漫长岁月的自然演化而生存下来的。具有独特的适应生存环境的本领和遗传基因的多样性,抗逆性,蕴藏着巨大的生产潜力。目前各类森林生态系统正遭到严重破坏,丰富多彩的生物物种正面临着逐渐灭绝的境地。保护生物多样性必须保护森林生态系统,也就是保护其生存环境,因为地球上有半数以上的生物物种都栖息在森林生态系统之中.建立自然保护区,加强对保护区领导,明确职责,认真执行有关政策和法令,是保护生物多样性的有效方法。     

Inclusive Community Forest Management

Summary

Proponents of community-based natural resource management often use definitions of community that implicitly, if not explicitly, favor resident forest users over migrant forest users. This paper explores the shortcomings of the “fixed-in-place” model of community, using examples from ongoing community-based management projects in Mali. The author then summarizes strategies that these projects are using to expand migrant forest user participation in decisonmaking. The paper ends with a brief discussion of how these experiences in West Africa can enrich community-based natural resource management efforts in the United States.     

森林生态系统经营中有关森林结构问题的探讨

森林生态系统经营是将森林作为一个复杂的生态系统来经营,在对森林资源的经营利用过程中,应维持森林生态系统的健康与完整,并长期保持系统的功能良好．提出将小班区划与林型划分相结合的方法来划分森林生态系统经营的最基本单位,并对森林生态系统经营中森林结构与系统生产力、生产潜力、生物多样性等的关系问题进行了探讨．     

Global Linkages to Community-Based Ecosystem Management in the United States

Abstract

Community-based ecosystem management (CBEM) in the United States is closely tied to global processes. Increasing and shifting international market demands for ecosystem products and services together with global trends in climate change and biodiversity loss have tangible impacts in communities in every region of the country. Meanwhile, community-based natural resource management efforts in other parts of the world, particularly in developing countries, have a longer history than in the United States. This history, and the tools and techniques developed elsewhere for community-based resource management, can help to inform North American advocates and practitioners of CBEM. This paper has four objectives. The first is to identify key global trends that affect communities in the United States. These trends include demand and supply relationships (especially of forest resources) and environmental changes that will shape economic and policy choices in coming decades. Second, the paper examines countervailing forces of globalization and decentralization. How are shifting patterns of governance and control around the world affecting the prospects for sustainable community-based resource management? Third, the paper seeks to understand migration as a growing feature of many communities. What challenges and opportunities does migration pose for sustainable resource management? Finally, the paper summarizes a few of the tools and techniques used internationally that might have relevance in the United States.     

陆良县森林及森林生态资源管理与保护的思考

依据自然社会概况、森林资源概况分析了陆良县森林资源特点、森林资源管理现状及森林资源管理中面临的困难,对今后一段时期森林资源管理进行了思考,提出了相应的对策和措施,对林地和湿地专琐保护面临的问题进行了探讨,思索如何更好地保护森林及森林生态资源。     

The complexity and consequences of the policy implementation dealing with sustainable ideas

This article portrays a case study in Yogyakarta, Indonesia which looks into the dynamic relationship between communities and the effectiveness of the implementation of community-based forest management (CBFM) policies and its programme, and particularly on how local institutions deal with the shifting dynamics of these policies. As there is currently an absence of research in this area, this research therefore focuses on how the local community implements policy, builds relationships with other stakeholders, and strengthens local community institutions.

CBFM has been implemented in Yogyakarta since 1995 and during that time, the central government has been changing the policy for five times. At this point, this article argues that CBFM should rely on local institutions and deal with the shifting dynamics of policies. The terms of institutions can be considered to include formal institutions, such as Constitution, government laws, charters, decrees and statutes, and informal institutions, such as code of conducts, customs, local knowledge and social expectations. Furthermore, in selected communities, it is clear that the local communities can apply their informal institutions as an important component and value of traditional systems and significantly involved in forest management sustainability and establish the formal institutions simultaneously.     

Public Involvement in Forest Management Planning

Summary

In 1997, the US Forest Service initiated public involvement processes in three national forests in the northeastern United States-the Finger Lakes National Forest in central New York, the Green Mountain National Forest in Vermont, and the White Mountain National Forest in New Hampshire and Maine. Citizens' perspectives were sought on forest management prior to determining the changes needed for revising the Land and Resource Management Plans (Forest Plans) as well as to exchange information on management of these three forests. These processes represent a pro-active effort by the US Forest Service to engage communities of interest in dialogue about the management of these national forests. The Forest Service has emphasized the principles of ecosystem management and community partnership in developing these plans. The paper describes the policy framework for forest planning and an outline of the Plan Revision process as developed in the Northeast. It further offers a preliminary analysis of this approach, including lessons to date, their implication for subsequent phases of plan revision processes in the Northeast, and possible relevance for agencies embarking on similar public planning initiatives.     

森林生态系统经营探讨

阐述了森林生态系统经营提出的背景及概念 ,论述了生态学的物流与能流原理、系统边界的确定、维护森林生态系统健康以及生物多样性原理在森林生态系统经营中的应用 ,并简述了森林生态系统经营目前存在的主要问题和未来的发展     

天然林保育理论基础研究

在我国,天然林资源所占森林资源比重大,质量却不高,天然林保育是森林可持续经营的必然选择。为此在界定天然林与天然林保育术语的基础上,论述了森林更新演替、森林可持续经营、生态系统经营、近自然经营、分类经营、保护生物学与景观生态学理论等,是天然林保育的基础理论,应依此确定森林经营实践的支撑技术,以实现我国天然林森林可持续经营目标。     

河北雾灵山典型森林群落物种多样性研究

在对雾灵山自然保护区9个代表林分物种多样性详细调查的基础上,运用多种群落多样性指数对其群落的物种多样性进行分析。结果表明:各群落在乔木层、灌木层和草本层的物种多样性指数均呈现出一定的差异。乔木层物种多样性、P ielou均匀度指数和丰富度指数变化趋势呈一致性。灌木层和草本层均出现不一致性,主要是因为各林分起源不同,天然林群落是由处于不同发育阶段、具有不同组成结构、大小不同的众多斑块镶嵌而成的,是一个健康的生态系统。人工林群落的生物多样性很低,使人工林群落无论在活力、组织结构和恢复能力等诸方面,均表现出系统的不健康特点。     

国外森林生态系统管理模式的经验与启示

介绍了美国、加拿大和德国3个国家森林生态系统管理模式的基本情况及其相应的社会、经济和文化发展背景, 分析比较了它们的基本特征, 并在此基础上讨论对我国开展森林生态系统管理的几点启示。     

浅谈森林生态系统的经营

分析了森林生态系统经营存在的问题,并提出了森林生态系统的经营策略和经营实践。     

Testing Stewardship Concepts on Federal Land

Summary

The goal of this paper is to describe recent attempts to define the stewardship concept and to translate it into action on the ground. The focus is on national forest lands and the unique challenges federal land managers face in working with the public to implement a concept that has different meanings to a variety of stakeholders. Stewardship requires more flexibility than is often found under existing administrative authorities. Large, bureaucratic agencies face many barriers in applying creative and innovative solutions to existing problems, not the least of which are internal and external reward structures. While there exist some authorities that allow for the creative testing of stewardship contracting projects on the ground, a number of challenges remain. Two significant ones are: (1) the need for a clearer, consistent understanding (by both Forest Service employees and constituents) of the authorities that can be used to test stewardship concepts; and (2) a more broad-based agreement on the desired outcome of stewardship projects. Given the current lack of understanding and agreement on how to implement stewardship concepts, the most effective means of moving the issue forward will be to apply innovative tests of contracting methods under current or new temporary authorities. These tests should be designed, implemented, monitored, and evaluated using broad-based, inclusive, on-the-ground coalitions that create effective ties and linkages between local and national levels.     

森林生态系统管理研究概述

森林生态系统管理是实现森林可持续经营的一条生态途径。生态系统管理思想的发展历程与生态学的发展历程密切相关, 是生态学理论与管理学思想的融合过程。文中在概述森林生态系统管理思想的发展历程与背景的基础上, 重点讨论了森林生态系统管理的概念和内涵, 并分别从生态学、社会学和经济学3个角度论述了目前森林生态系统管理的主要研究方向和内容, 指出森林生态系统管理本质上是一种森林资源管理方法, 其应用不仅仅关系到自然科学, 而更多地关系到文化和社会, 因此要根据特殊的国情和林情, 研究适合我国现阶段社会经济发展背景的森林生态系统管理模式。     

森林可持续经营问题探讨

阐述了森林可持续经营提出的背景；论述了保持森林生态系统的生产力可再生能力，维护森林生态系统健康以及保护生物多样性是森林可持续经营的三个关键因素；并提出了实现森林可持续经营主要对策。     

A Civic Conversation About Public Lands

Summary

Community-based ecosystem management (CBEM) is being offered as an alternative to agency-based public land management. Its fundamental premise is connecting communities to public lands for the purpose of increasing ecosystem stewardship and community sustainability. For CBEM to appropriately serve the public interest, new social and institutional relationships will need to be formed, collaborative learning will need to occur, and capacities in community participation and ecological literacy will need to be developed. A new civic conversation about public lands is essential to these relationships, learning, and capacities. Community governance processes, which guide these collaborative and participatory activities, must correspondingly reflect the community-based nature of CBEM, while preserving the national interests in public land resources.