Environmental Education in the Condor Bioreserve

Abstract

Effective conservation rests on an educated population. This chapter describes the status of environmental education programs in the Condor Bioreserve (CBR), Ecuador and makes recommendations for expansion of educational efforts. The major programs that are currently in place include the community park guard system, the Andean Bear Project, and workshops and networks established by the US Department of Interior and The Nature Conservancy. Most environmental education in the CBR is focused on community participation in natural resource management, and there is a relatively small amount of attention devoted to programs for teachers and children. Major recommendations include defining common goals, increasing environmental education efforts in schools, offering teacher training, developing monitoring and assessment protocols, and expanding educational efforts outside of the CBR. The paper links recommendations for improvements in environmental education in the CBR to lessons learned through research and education programs elsewhere in the world.     

Biodiversity Values and Measures Applied to Forest Management

Abstract

With the new emphasis in land management agencies (particularly the USDA Forest Service) on ecosystem management, new attention is being paid to measurements of biological diversity (biodiversity). Forest managers faced with incorporating the maintenance of biodiversity into their analyses, plans, and decisions need reliable, quantitative biodiversity measures. Deciding which measures to use requires land managers to understand why biodiversity is valued, which components of diversity are of most value, and how to measure these components feasibly. In this paper, the values associated with biodiversity and the principal indices available to forest managers are reviewed. Attention is drawn to the differing emphases of biodiversity indices-species richness, heterogeneity, and evenness-and to how diese differences address different values. Potential applications for these indices in forest management plans-including ways to use habitat models to approximate biodiversity-are also discussed.     

Using the Spectacled Bear as a Conservation Tool in the Condor Bioreserve,Ecuador

Abstract

Conservation organizations in the Condor Bioreserve (CBR) in northern Ecuador use the spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus) as a surrogate species to focus conservation efforts. However, the utility of single-species management has been questioned in recent scientific literature, making it appropriate to review the spectacled bear's efficacy as a conservation tool. The spectacled bear does not enjoy unqualified public support in CBR and surroundings, suggesting that it may not be appropriate as a flagship species. It may be more effective as a keystone species; its diet and migratory habits suggest that it may have a significant impact on plant community structure through fruit dispersal. However, more research is needed in this arena before drawing any conclusions. The spectacled bear is perhaps most appropriate as an umbrella species because of its large home range, which encompasses at least two ecosystem types: páramo and montane forest. Traditionally, the concept of the umbrella species has stressed minimum area requirements, but the spectacled bear may be a more effective umbrella species if its dispersal requirements and seasonal migration patterns are also addressed. Eco-Ciencia, an Ecuadorian research organization, recently constructed a habitat model for spectacled bear. They are uniquely positioned to address issues of habitat connectivity both within and between the protected areas of CBR. In doing so, they could influence future zoning decisions in and around CBR, an area that is experiencing rapid population growth. This could improve conservation efforts for spectacled bear and other species.     

Forest Utilization in the Sierra Juarez,Oaxaca, Mexico

Abstract

As one of the most diverse biological regions in the seasonal tropics, Oaxaca's main management challenge is balancing sustainable forest harvesting with preserving biological diversity, especially challenging for a village community with limited resources—both economic and technical. A closer look at the history of forest management activities in Sierra Juarez shows exploitative practices by Fabricas de Papel Tuxtapec (FAPATUX), a national paper manufacturer. In 1956, FAPATUX acquired a 25 year concession to harvest the communal forests of Ixtlán. Despite the success of the communities in working with FAPATUX and influencing the management of the communal lands, the communities eventually demanded greater control over the lands and sought to prevent the continuation of the concessions. Since then, communal forest management has sought to achieve two primary goals: (1) to provide economic returns and employment, and (2) to steward the land responsibly and sustainably. Their management plan has evolved into the manipulation of standard silvicultural procedures and their integration with traditional agricultural practices. The management of the timber resources in Ixtlán will continue to be a dynamic process. Having the flexibility to respond to failures and ever-changing conditions will ensure that Ixtlán will adapt its management and silvicultural systems over time to achieve its objectives.     

Forest Policy Evolution in Poland

Abstract

In Europe, intensive forest management has anteceded a long history of intensive exploitation. The result has been the replacement of natural forests with highly productive albeit more vulnerable forests of simplified structure. Polish forestry has followed this same pattern and the country has seen a substantial increase in forest cover over the last 50 years. The main challenge for Polish forest management comes in trying to meet growing demand for wood products while responding to increased public demand for conservation of environmental values. Poland's new Forest Act for the first time puts environmental social and productive values of the forest on an equal footing. Within the framework of the Act. the Polish Policy of Sustainable Forest Development puts special emphasis on protection of biological diversity and the promotion of environmentally safe technologies and practices. The concept of Forest Promotion Areas is the major element of the Policy. The challenge for Forest Promotion Areas and for Model Forests will be to bring together all the necessary elements: environmental, economic and social that will allow sustainable development in its broadest sense.     

Integrating a Research Station into Community Development and Area Protection in Nicaragua

Abstract

The entire southeast of Nicaragua and parts of neighbouring Costa Rica are presently being organized according to an ambitious regional development scheme called Si-a-Paz (Yes-to-Peace). Included are areas from high to low management intensity, such as sustainable agricultural and ranching developments, forest restoration and buffer zones, cultural monuments, as well as biological and wildlife reserves. Integrated in this grand scheme is the isolated subsistence community of New Greytown (San Juan del Norte), access point to a stunning variety of unique habitats, including riverine, estuarine, marine, coastal lowland, and upland environments, which are virtually intact at this time. A research station is planned for this growing community, with the intent to not only serve the exploration of the nearby Rio Indio-Maiz Biological Reserve, but also to contribute lo the economic development of the community itself, by assuring scientifically sound resource management input, diversification of the local economy and environmental education of the public. This paper focuses on the history of this project, and the interaction of governmental and non-governmental organizations in making it happen.     

Sustaining Tropical Forest Biodiversity

Abstract

Tropical forests are very rich in biological diversity and form an important economic and ecological resource. This biodiversity is of great value for communities living in or near these forests as a ready source of subsistence and cash income, and for the world at large as a source of tropical timber and non-timber products and a repository of genetic and chemical information. However, this biological complexity is diminishing rapidly. We analyze the main human (anthropogenic) actions causing loss of tropical forest biodiversity along with the strategies of management for forest biodiversity. Not only is the biophysical component important in management for biodiversity, but the action participation and support of local people, the national government and international cooperation as a whole, arc essential for an effective and sustainable development of tropical forests. This integrated development strategy ensures that socio-economic and environmental benefits are provided for present and future generations.     

Sustainable Forests: It's About Time (Montana)

Abstract

Forest health should be determined by ecological criteria as opposed to the more limited tree production approach. We must recognize the vital relationships between conserving biological diversity and sustaining forest ecosystems. World-wide forest management practices have too often ignored ecological principles, thereby jeopardizing forest health in the long-term. Much warranted attention has been given to rain forest problems. Temperate, mountain forests are also threatened, presenting unique sustainability problems. The forests of western Montana are a case in point. Sustainability is, of course, about time, and it is about time that forest management is changed to assure healthy forests for the future.     

Participatory Conservation in the Condor Bioreserve,Ecuador

Abstract

The Condor Bioreserve (CBR) project seeks to promote community-based and participatory forms of conservation at four protected areas in Ecuador. This chapter provides a review of the academic and practitioner literature on participatory conservation, and explores the kinds of participation which occur in the CBR. Three assertions are central to the paper. First, the ways communities are represented by project documents and project planners condition the outcomes of participatory projects. Second, the intense focus of participatory approaches on the community level diverts attention from political and economic realities which constrain the ability of community members to actively conserve natural resources. And third, the chronological point at which communities and local people become involved in decision processes affects the kinds of participation in conservation projects; because problem definition is a key moment in which various participants establish basic assumptions about the nature of problems, the exclusion of local communities from the initial phases of program planning conditions the ways in which communities are likely to participate in conservation efforts. The paper addresses these issues by looking at the cases of management planning activities, the water fund (FONAG), extension efforts in the Sinangoé community, and the Local Participation in the Management of Protected Areas (PALOMAP) external review of participation in the CBR initiative.     

Overcoming Paralysis by Complexity When Establishing Operational Goals for Biodiversity

Abstract

It has proven difficult to define operational goals for the maintenance of biological diversity in forested systems. Difficulty derives from two sources: focus on the elements encompassed by definitions of biodiversity encourages “paralysis by complexity”; and, several definitions tend to equate biological diversity with ecological diversity. Careful reading of the international agreements from UNCED '92 reveals both the scientific rationale and public concerns underlying maintenance of biodiversity. Linking management goals directly to public concerns avoids several dangers. Those dangers include managers being convicted of failure to achieve all imagined benefits of the concept “biodiversity,” researchers falling prey to bureaucratic expectation of science to fill policy instead of science to critically assess policy, and undue emphasis on the gap between the production and practical application of knowledge.     

Introduction: Working Forests in the Tropics: Policy and Market Impacts on Conservation and Management

Abstract

Tropical forests are very rich in biological diversity and form an important economic and ecological resource. This biodiversity is of great value for communities living in or near these forests as a ready source of subsistence and cash income, and for the world at large as a source of tropical timber and non-timber products and a repository of genetic and chemical information. However, this biological complexity is diminishing rapidly. We analyze the main human (anthropogenic) actions causing loss of tropical forest biodiversity along with the strategies of management for forest biodiversity. Not only is the biophysical component important in management for biodiversity, but the active participation and support of local people, national governments, and the international community as a whole are essential to effective and sustainable development of tropical forests. This development strategy ensures that socioeconomic and environmental benefits are provided for present and future generations.     

The Ecuadorian Condor Bioreserve Initiative

Abstract

The Condor Bioreserve (CBR) initiative is an attempt by government and non-governmental agencies to manage four ecological reserves and their surrounding areas and populations in Northern Ecuador for ^{sustainability} and natural resource conservation. The goal of this paper is to assist the participants at the CBR, and the interested reader, in understanding the decision process in which they are involved; the authors provide a general framework for understanding decision processes and problem solving approaches. Key issues addressed include social process, decision process, and the common interest. Social process refers to the context within which decision-making takes place, and includes the analysis of participants, their perspectives, values, and strategies, and the outcomes and effects of their interactions. Decision process refers to the various activities which constitute most problem-solving and policy-making processes: initiation, estimation, selection, implementation, evaluation and termination. In our discussion, we take the normative position that for decision processes to result in conservation or sustainability, they must seek to find the common interest. We discuss the difference between special interests and the common interest, and provide some tests to determine whether decision processes in the CBR initiative contribute to the common interest. Finally, we suggest that (1) analysis of existing experience within Ecuador, (2) utilizing the problem-solving framework we have proposed, and (3) widespread diffusion of this knowledge to CBR participants will help policymakers and managers in their attempts to find the common interest and promote conservation and sustainable development.     

近自然森林经营在德国的应用成效分析

[目的]分析德国推行近自然森林经营20年来的经营效果,总结德国推行近自然森林经营的经验。[方法]在明晰近自然森林经营原则的基础上,基于两期(间隔期10年)资源清查数据对比,对德国大面积推行近自然森林经营20年的经营效果进行分析。[结果]两期资源清查数据表明,德国采用近自然经营20年后,针叶林如挪威云杉和欧洲赤松的面积显著减少,阔叶林和针阔混交林面积持续增加;阔叶树种蓄积平均增长量约为15 m~3·hm~(-2),针叶树种蓄积平均增长4 m~3·hm~(-2),挪威云杉是唯一蓄积下降的树种,下降了5 m~3·hm~(-2);近自然度等级变化表明,人工林面积在减少,而近自然森林的面积在增加,甚至符合原始林等级的森林面积也在增加。[结论]实现近自然森林经营的目标是一个长期的过程,联邦政府促进和保护森林的政策以及林场主所采用的先进的森林经营技术也是德国森林每公顷蓄积达到336 m~3的重要原因;在近自然森林经营的原则下,德国森林中针阔混交林比例显著增加;将近自然程度不高的人工林经营转化为近自然的森林生态系统是德国森林经营所面临的主要问题。     

云南绿春县天然次生林和4种人工林树冠层蚂蚁群落多样性

[目的]探讨天然次生林和人工林及人工林树种选择对树冠层蚂蚁群落多样性的影响。[方法]运用树栖蚂蚁陷阱法调查云南省绿春县天然次生林和4种人工林的树冠层蚂蚁群落、植物多样性及植物垂直密度变化。[结果](1)共采集蚂蚁标本17 998头,隶属于6亚科29属68种。(2)树冠层蚂蚁多度:紫胶林-玉米混农林紫胶林桉树林橡胶林天然次生林。(3)树冠层蚂蚁丰富度:紫胶林-玉米混农林紫胶林天然次生林橡胶林桉树林。(4)树冠层蚂蚁ACE估计值:紫胶林-玉米混农林紫胶林天然次生林桉树林橡胶林。(5)树冠层蚂蚁多度和丰富度与枯落物盖度、300 cm处垂直密度和乔木郁闭度呈显著或极显著负相关,而与植物盖度显著正相关;ACE估计值与枯落物盖度、草本植物盖度和乔木郁闭度显著负相关,与175 199.9 cm区段内垂直密度显著正相关。[结论]人工林对蚂蚁多样性保护有一定积极作用,尤其选择乡土树种保护效果更显著,对人工林进行合理的管理有利于保护生物多样性。     

Dynamics of ecosystem services in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus sylvestris</Emphasis> stands under different managements and site quality classes

Timber and biodiversity are considered two antagonistic ecosystem services (ES), largely influenced by silviculture and site ecological conditions. In order to address the trade-offs between these two ES over time, we performed a retrospective study at compartment level in the Pinus sylvestris forests of the Spanish Central Mountain System. Archival data from Management Plans for eight forests with contrasting silvicultural systems (uniform shelterwood system, group shelterwood system, irregular shelterwood system,) and three different site quality classes were analysed. Timber production was assessed through stand volume, harvested timber volume and a stand volume index. Biodiversity was examined through structural diversity (Gini index, Shannon tree size diversity index, Simpson’s reciprocal index and evenness index, all applied to diameter classes) and the abundance of large living trees. For all silvicultural systems investigated, stand volume and harvested timber volume have grown since the beginning of the management plans (beginning of the twentieth century in some forests). The largest yields of timber corresponded to the best quality sites with more intensive silvicultural treatments (uniform and group shelterwood systems). The uniform shelterwood system showed lower figures for structural diversity, though not always significant. The best site qualities maintained notable structural diversity values, even under the most intensive management system. The application of the different management systems over decades has revealed a synergy between timber production and structural diversity, particularly in those systems maintaining more than one age class, although results are conditioned by forest harvesting history. The interaction between historical silvicultural treatment and site quality has been identified as an important source of information to understand forest dynamics and functioning of ES provision.     

Stand structure and successional trends in virgin boreal forest reserves in Sweden

Fire history and stand structure was examined in twelve virgin forest stands situated within forest reserves in northern Sweden. The selected stands represented fire refuges as well as different successional stages after fire. Six of the stands were dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.), three were dominated by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), and three were dominated by hairy birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) or aspen (Populus tremula L.). In 3 of the southernmost stands, the average fire interval was 34 to 65 years during the late 1600s to late 1800s, but since 1888 no fires had occurred in any of the stands. The absence of fire disturbance since 1888 is probably caused by the fire suppression in the overall landscape. The standing volume of living trees ranged between 87 and 511 m³ ha⁻¹ while the volume of dead trees, including both snags and logs, ranged between 27 and 201 m³ ha⁻¹. The volume of dead trees constituted ca. 30% of the total stem volume. In the conifer dominated stands, there was a statistically significant relationship between total stem volume, including both living and dead trees, and site productivity. A comparison between the amount of dead and living trees indicated substantial changes in tree species composition in several stands. It is suggested that data on the amount of dead trees, especially logs, and its distribution over decay classes could be used to examine the continuity of certain tree species. All stands had a multi-sized tree diameter distribution, which in most cases was similar to a reversed J-shaped distribution. In general spruce was numerous in the seedling cohort and in small diameter classes, indicating that its proportion in the stands was stable, or was increasing at the expense of pioneer tree species such as pine, aspen and silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.). The most numerous species in the seedling cohort, rowan (Sorbus aucuparia L.), was almost totally missing in the tree layer, indicating a high browsing pressure preventing rowan seedlings from growing into trees. The general increase of spruce and the sparse regeneration of pioneer species, in the stands previously affected by fire, are discussed in relation to natural disturbance regimes, biological diversity and nature conservation policies. It is proposed that reintroduction of fire disturbance is a necessity for future management plans of forest reserves. Other management practices to increase species diversity within forest reserves are also discussed.     

Biomass carbon pools of Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook. forests in subtropical China: Characteristics and potential

Abstract

Swedish forestry has successfully developed systems for sustained yield production of wood. Silvicultural techniques are today completely dominated (96%) by clear-felling methods. By contrast, Swedish natural forests and preindustrial cultural woodlands were ecologically and culturally diverse, with a substantial proportion having a continuous tree cover as a response to natural disturbance dynamics and preindustrial agricultural land management. If forest management systems do not mimic this diversity of disturbance regimes sufficiently well, the scope of sustainable forest management to include biodiversity and sociocultural values will not be met. This study estimated the past and present amount of one cultural and two natural disturbance regimes known to deliver continuous tree cover in two study areas located around two important biophysical and sociocultural transition zones in northern and southern Sweden, respectively. Several approaches were used to estimate the amount of remaining continuous tree cover forests. The results indicate that 9–10% of the study areas is made up by site types that historically would have held a large proportion of continuous tree cover forests. Estimates for productive site types show that only 1–2% of these sites remain in southern Sweden and 10–20% in northern Sweden. The data indicate that present management in both study areas is similar. Thus, these differences between the regions will disappear in a few decades. To achieve the aim of Swedish forest and environmental policies there is a clear need to develop and use alternative forest management methods on appropriate sites.     

Biological diversity indicators: A comparison of Swedish forest commons and other forest ownership categories

Abstract

Research indicates that natural resources managed in common, resembling traditional commons such as the Swedish forest commons, could be a type of regime with the potential to stimulate successfully sustainable use conditions. This is supported by findings regarding the characteristics of Swedish forest commons, their claimed concern for the environment and relatively high proportion of old forest in two out of three regions. Swedish environmental policy is directed towards environmental quality objectives and the Sustainable Forests objective states, among other things, that biological diversity must be maintained and enhanced. Swedish National Forest Inventory data for the period 2003–2006 were used to analyse differences between forest commons in northern Sweden and other ownership categories regarding the proportion of forestland with a large deciduous element, the proportion of forest older than 80 years with a large (> 25%) deciduous element, the volume of dead wood and the proportion of forest older than 140 years, parameters corresponding to the interim targets for enhanced biological diversity. The results show no consistent differences in indicator variables between the forest commons and other ownership categories, signifying that forests managed in common have been conducted in ways promoting biodiversity more effectively than in other ownership categories. Further studies of different ownership categories regarding driving forces and forest status are warranted.     

Process

Abstract

Process in community-based ecosystem management (CBEM) involves a fundamental reframing of human relationships with each other and with other ecosystem components. Inherent to this re-framing is a respect for diversity and for different ways of knowing, a willingness to meet others on their own terms, and a willingness to respect others' knowledge even while openly sharing one's own. CBEM process is characterized by an embracing of diverse cultural and social groups within a community, equal access to and open exchange of information, mutual learning, flexibility, and collective vision. CBEM process also is impeded by long-standing power imbalances inherent in our culture and in our governance systems. Overcoming these power imbalances will not be easy, and CBEM faces a number of process challenges. These include: lack of incentives for some parties to participate, traditionally disempowered groups, administrative bureaucracy, and legitimacy. To be sustainable, CBEM process ultimately will have to integrate the key dimensions of inclusiveness, accessibility, transparency, mutual learning, adaptability, and collective vision within existing social and governance processes.     

Fire Ecology and Management in the La Amistad Biosphere Reserve,Panama

Abstract

The use of fire in the La Amistad Biosphere Reserve, Panama, is a complex issue, especially given its biophysical, cultural, and socioeconomic context. A geographic gradient exists, depicting the threat from fire to the reserve. Areas around Volcan Baru have a high potential fire threat due to the biophysical aspects of the area and land-use activities. Fire use has a long cultural history in Panama. It continues to be frequently employed to clear land for swidden agriculture, cattle ranching on the Atlantic side of the Talamancan mountain range, and agricultural development on the Pacific side. Land tenure insecurity and perverse policies also incite its utilization for claiming land. Set fires often escape their boundaries and burn property, structures, crops, and fire-sensitive ecosystems. If left unchecked, anthropogenic fires pose a significant threat to both the ecological and socioeconomic well being of the Biosphere Reserve. Recommendations for the reserve's fire management plan focus on policy augmentation, educational outreach, monitoring, prevention, and fire research.