Sustainability aspects of commercial medicinal plant harvesting in Suriname

The commercial harvest of herbal medicine to meet the growing urban demand has become an environmentally destructive activity in many countries. Non-sustainable harvesting not only threatens the survival of medicinal plant species, but also the people that depend on them. In Suriname, the urbanization of Maroons has created a lively trade in medicinal plants, but little is known on the ecological effects of this trade. To find out whether this commercial harvest was a destructive activity, we carried out a market survey and followed commercial extractors into the forest to look for signs of overharvesting. We analyzed our results from three perspectives: the market, the harvesters and the post-harvest survival of the particular plants. Of the 249 commercial species, less than half was harvested exclusively from the wild. Most extraction took place in secondary forest or man-made vegetation close to the capital. Leaves were the main product. Apart from a few primary forest-based species (e.g., Begonia glabra), we found little evidence for declining resources. Maroons were actively cultivating and managing wild plants. Our three-way analysis enabled us to distinguish between species without sustainability problems (abundant, domesticated, cultivated, limited market value, disturbance species or surviving harvest) and species with conservation priorities. This study illustrates that the increased commercialization of medicinal plants due to urbanization does not invariably lead to declining resources and species loss. With its low population density and market dominated by disturbance species, Suriname offers good possibilities for sustainable medicinal plant extraction.     

Understanding the Relationships Between American Ginseng Harvest and Hardwood Forests Inventory and Timber Harvest to Improve Co-Management of the Forests of Eastern United States

The roots of American ginseng have been harvested from the hardwood forests of the eastern United States, alongside timber, since the mid-1700s. Very little is known about this non-timber commodity relative to timber, although significant volumes of ginseng root have been harvested from the same forests along with timber. The harvest of ginseng correlated positively and significantly with hardwood forest area, hardwood growing stock volume, and timber removals. Also, it correlated with hardwood growing stock on public forestlands in the region. The annual wholesale value of American ginseng was estimated at approximately $26.9 million compared to annual stumpage value of harvested hardwood timber of just over $1.27 billion. The volume of ginseng root harvested from natural forests represents substantial extraction of biomass, and the associated value represents substantial income for people living in an economically marginalized region. Co-management of eastern hardwood forests for timber and non-timber forest products could improve local economies and better conserve the biodiversity of these forests.     

甘肃省天然林区森林资源蓄积量及用材林消长变化

通过对甘肃省天然林区5次森林资源连续清查蓄积量及用材林蓄积量变化的分析，初步得出结论：1979-1988年甘肃省天然林区蓄积量为增长阶段，1988-1996年蓄积量属减少阶段，1996-2001年为增长阶段。通过对3个阶段的分析，说明甘肃省20多年来，天然林区蓄积量呈波浪式的增长、减少、再增长趋势，也充分说明了国家实施天保工程的正确性。     

用材林林木资产评估模式及方法

用材林评估是当前我国林权制度改革的主要内容之一,本文重点阐述了林木资产评估中用材林的评估模式及评估方法,并以黑龙江伊春地区某林业局的林木资产评估为例,分析及阐明了用材林资产评估的程序及方法选择,为我国今后的用材林资产评估提供了科学依据.     

商品林企业有关会计问题研究

本文结合林木资源生产及资金运作特点 ,探讨了在商品林生产采取企业式经营、核算的前提下 ,商品林企业林木资源资产、收入、成本、费用的确认及计量问题。     

Leaf Litter Decomposition,Litterfall, and Effects of Leaf Mulches from Mixed and Monospecific Plantations in Costa Rica

Abstract

Rates of litter decomposition and nutrient release from litter provide valuable information on the capacity of different tree species to replenish soil nutrients in degraded tropical areas. Leaf litter decomposition, leaf litterfall, plantation floor leaf litter, and mulch performance were studied for four indigenous timber species, Virola koschnyiWarb, Dipteryxpanamensis(Pittier) Record and Mell, Terminalia amazonia(J.F. Gmel.) Exell., and Albizia gua-chapele(H.B.K.) Little, grown in mixed and monospecific plantations in the Atlantic humid lowlands of Costa Rica. Terminalia amazonialitter decomposed the fastest: no litter remained after 6 months. After 12 months, D. panamensis, A. guachapele, and the mixed litter decomposed completely, while 15% of the original weight of V. koschnyilitter remained. Differences in decomposition rates were closely related to leaf nutrient content. Total annual leaf litterfall was highest in T. amazonia(872.9 g/m²), followed by D. panamensis, V. koschnyi, and the mixed plots. A. guachapelehad the lowest leaf litterfall (236.0 g/m²). The highest plantation-floor leaf litter was found in V. koschnyiand D. panamensis.Both litterfall and plantation-floor litter accumulation fluctuated least in the mixed plots. A. guachapeleand D. panamensismulch most positively affected maize seedling growth, followed by the mixed mulch. Recommendations are drawn from the results to suggest species choice for sustainable land management in the region.     

Environmental Change and the Sustainability of European Forests

Summary

It is some years now since forest decline was a major public concern in Europe and was one of the principal environmental issues around which international research programs were focused. A number of internationally coordinated activities were initiated in the 1980s and 1990s and have continued until now; these contributed significantly to our current understanding of forestry and to the way in which forestry policies have developed. In short, the concept of sustainable development has had an increasing influence and is now of immeasurable value in forest policy, with sustainable forest management well established as its guiding principle. This sequence of events is examined here. The extent to which understanding has advanced is remarkable; much has changed. Arguably this period gave the first indication of the extent to which forests and ecosystems globally are threatened by environmental change. On the basis of the last 20 years, it is tempting to conclude that we now have an effective institutional framework and have made excellent progress. However, some of the recorded ecosystem responses seem anomalous; there are surprises in system responses, e.g., the linkage between sulphur and nitrogen depositions and forest growth. Even more importantly some specific pollutant problems remain and will intensify, and climate change has become an environmental issue of overwhelming importance.     

Utilization of non-timber forest products in humid tropics: Implications for management and livelihood

Community dependence on forest resources for diverse needs has high implications for long term management of forests. Sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is considered best feasible strategy for forest conservation in biodiversity rich areas. This paper examines the heterogeneity of NTFPs use by tribal communities in northeast India, a global hot spot by examining diversity of NTFPs at-large, its consumption pattern, and contribution to rural income and forest revenue. A total of 343 NTFPs recorded used for diverse purposes by tribal communities. When species choice grouped as per use category, utilization for medicinal (163 species), edible fruits (75 species) and vegetables (65 species) purposes was reasonably high. Community dependence on forest resources was 100% for firewood and house construction material. 76 plant species were sold in three major local markets while an additional 22 species traded at commercial scale mainly outside the state. NTFPs contributed 19-32% of total household income for different tribal communities, which was significant. Illicium griffithii, Rubia cordifolia, Oroxylum indicum, Swertia chirayita, Litsea sebifera, Taxus wallichiana, Valeriana jatamansii, Thalictrum foliolosum, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Everniastrum cirrhatum, Cordyceps sinensis, Aconitum fletcherianum, Nardostachys jatamansi, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Gymnadenia orchidis, Calamus, Quercus and Pinus roxbughii were important commercial species. NTFPs also generated substantial revenue to the State government, though it is falling year after year, which is alarming. To meet community livelihoods, income and forest revenue from NTFPs, it desires a thorough management plan and policy guidelines for these resources from all line departments. The knowledge on diversity, its consumption pattern, and contribution to rural income and forest revenue may enable planners to accurately plan sustainable management of NTFP resources and community development in near future.     

Individual growth, reproduction and population dynamics of Dioon merolae (Zamiaceae) under different leaf harvest histories in Central Chiapas, Mexico

Leaves of the long-lived Dioon merolae have been harvested intensively for decades (possibly for centuries) for ceremonial purposes by Zoque and mestizo groups inhabiting the Central Depression of Chiapas, Mexico. Over a period of four years, we evaluated vital rates (stem growth, leaf production, reproductive performance, and survival) and projected population growth rates in three populations (250 plants each, divided into eight size classes: new germinants, seedlings, saplings (S1, S2), and adults, A1-A4) with different leaf harvesting histories: non-defoliated by humans for at least 55 years (or very old harvest), defoliated annually until 15 years ago (recovering from harvest), and defoliated annually for at least the past 25 years (currently being harvested intensely). Population structure was affected by leaf harvest history. Stem growth was negatively affected by the annual harvest of leaves in size classes from seedlings up to A4 (ANOVA, P < 0.003); fewer leaves were produced by seedlings, saplings and adults at the annually harvested site (ANOVA, P < 0.027). Survival was high at all sites across all size classes; in the annually harvested site, A4 plants showed a decrease in survival (one dead out of four plants). Sex ratio of adults that produced cones during the four years of study was 61% males to 39% females. At the non-defoliated site, adult classes A2 and A4 produced >80% of the cones; no cones were produced by the A3 and A4 adult size classes at the annually harvested site. Asymptotic estimates of population growth indicated growing populations (λ ≥ 1); the highest mean values of finite population growth rate were obtained in the non-harvested site (λ = 1.0202). Elasticity analysis with population projection matrices indicated that stasis (L, 9-38%) was the component that most contributed to λ, followed by growth (G, 1.2-2.9%), and fecundity (F, 0.2-1.1%). We observed detrimental effects on several vital rates due to continued long-term defoliation, although population growth parameters do not currently suggest a decreased trend as a result of the annual harvest of leaves. The duration of this study of a very long-lived plant species suggests caution when setting levels and frequency of leaf harvest. The results help pinpoint practical recommendations that could be implemented in a sustainable management plan for this species, particularly to increase seed production in the annually harvested site, and recruitment of new germinants and seedlings at all sites. However, sound practices will need to consider the interests of involved stakeholders (landowners, pilgrims, conservation organizations and authorities) to effectively reduce anthropogenic pressure on this endangered species.     

Transitioning from wild collection to forest cultivation of indigenous medicinal forest plants in eastern North America is constrained by lack of profitability

The forest flora of eastern North America includes many herbaceous plant species traded in domestic and international medicinal markets. Conservation concerns surrounding wild-collection exist and transitioning to cultivation in agroforestry systems has potential economic and ecological benefits. Costs and revenues associated with adopting forest cultivation were modeled for eight North American medicinal forest plants. Sensitivity analysis examined profit potential in relation to (1) discount rates; (2) propagation methods; (3) prices; (4) growing period; (5) production costs; and (6) yields. Results indicate that intensive husbandry of six of eight species would be unprofitable at recent (1990–2005) price levels. Exceptions are American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.), and under certain circumstances (e.g., maximum historic prices, low production costs) goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.). Direct marketing to consumers and retailers might improve grower profits, but is undermined by the availability of cheaper, wild-collected product. We suggest that the North American medicinal plant industry could play a key role in facilitating any transition from wild to cultivated product, perhaps through development of a certification and labeling program that brands “forest cultivated” products. This could generate price premiums, to be passed along to growers, but must be accompanied by aggressive consumer education. A “forest cultivated” certification and labeling program has potential to benefit industry and consumers if assurances regarding product identity and quality are a central feature. Plant species that are not viable candidates for commercial cultivation due to limited consumer demand (i.e., species with “shallow,” erratic markets) are best addressed through proactive government and industry initiatives involving targeted harvester education programs.     

Potential for greenery from degraded temperate forests to increase income of indigenous women in Chile

There has been much emphasis placed on the economic contribution that non-timber forest products (NTFP) can make to rural livelihoods of people living in or near forests. In this study we focus on the benefits of greenery obtained from two tree species, romerillo (Lomatia ferruginea (Cav.) R. Br.) and avellano (Gevuina avellana Mol.), collected by indigenous women in southern Chile. Trees producing commercial-quality leaves grew in secondary forests dominated by species usually abundant in ecological formations that follow forest degradation. Natural availability of greenery was relatively low (658 and 38 commercial leaves per hectare for romerillo and avellano, respectively) which added to restrictive market conditions resulted in modest financial returns and a contribution to household income of less than 1%. Our results confirm that trade on NTFP does not always lead to significant income generation. Yet, the information provided, represents a basis to explore management alternatives, such as agroforestry schemes, which can potentially expand greenery yield and economic returns.     

Options for Non-Timber Forest Product Management in the Condor Bioreserve,Ecuador

Abstract

This paper describes and evaluates the current role that non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and their users play on the conservation of the four protected areas-Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Cotopaxi, and Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo Galeras-that comprise the Condor Bioreserve. The category non-timber forest product (also referred to as non-wood forest product) encompasses a myriad of resources that reside in forests and can be useful to people. Plants from which NTFPs are derived play essential roles in tropical forest ecosystem processes such as regeneration and nutrient cycling. In the Condor Bioreserve, certain species of such plants are commercially valuable while others are endangered. People are extracting these NTFPs from the Bioreserve, yet the magnitude and frequency of such extraction is unknown. This paper examines how the three groups of land users that have been identified by The Nature Conservancy-colonists, indigenous peoples, and hacienda owners-may utilize NTFPs. Understanding the role that these plants play in the lives of its collectors is imperative for designing effective strategies to alleviate pressure that extraction may place on the Condor Bioreserve ecosystems. Data on who harvests NTFPs, which plant parts they use, what quantities they harvest, and harvest frequency must be complemented by insight into how each group benefits from these activities. Moreover, an unbiased approach must examine how NTFP extraction may enhance certain ecosystems in addition to ways in which it may hurt Bioreserve resource ecosystems.     

基于中国林产品出口企业视角的应对木材合法性要求策略评价及启示

如何应对木材合法性要求是当前中国林产品出口企业面临的现实问题。文中从林产品出口企业视角出发,构建中国林产品出口企业应对合法性要求可选策略的综合评价模型,基于企业实地调研数据,从市场利益、非市场利益、成本投入3个方面对现阶段市场认可度比较高的5种策略进行综合评价。结果显示:中国森林认证体系（CFCC）森林认证得分最高,但与其他策略的分差并不明显,企业可结合自身情况选择适合的应对策略。据此对CFCC和中国木材合法性验证体系（CTLVS）建设提出改进建议。     

中国天然林保护工程区目前急需解决的技术问题和对策

分析了天保工程不同区域存在的基本矛盾和问题,从面临的众多问题中总结归纳出退化天然林恢复与重建、非木质林产品资源开发利用、天然林近自然采育更新和结构调整、工程区防灾减灾和森林健康状况保持、天然林资源动态时空分析与评价等5个重大而急需解决的技术问题;提出了推广应用现有技术成果、针对新问题设立课题研究和引进国际先进理论技术为工程服务的总体对策;并针对5大问题进行深入分析,提出了人工促进退化天然林恢复、森林近自然经营及健康状态监测等解决问题的关键理论和技术要点.     

The compatibility of timber and non-timber forest product extraction and management

We discuss the extent of compatibility of timber and non-timber forest product (NTFP) extraction in two neotropical localities from biophysical, social, and institutional perspectives: the community concession forests of the Petén, Guatemala, and extractivist communities in northern Bolivia. In both localities, timber is harvested via reduced-impact logging (RIL) practices. In Guatemala, the main NTFP extracted is foliage from the understory xate palm (Chamaedorea spp.); in northern Bolivia, the fruits of the Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa). The Guatemalan case suggests a relatively high degree of compatibility due to low timber harvesting intensities, coupled with temporal, spatial, and social segregation of xate extraction in a well-defined land tenure system. In northern Bolivia, forest management regulations pay little attention to NTFPs and land tenure issues and related conflict complicate efforts to limit timber harvesting impacts on Brazil nut trees. The introduction of timber management plans overlain on customary property rights systems in which the extraction of Brazil nut is organized could undercut its management system. The two case studies suggest that specific legislative, education, and project interventions may help to promote the compatibility of timber and NTFP extraction and management. These include formal training of foresters on NTFP ecology and management while taking into account the perspectives of multiple stakeholders in the design of management plans. Tropical forest users, research managers, and policy makers will also better understand the need for integrated management of timber and NTFPs, if the trade-offs and potential economic benefits from NTFP extraction are clarified.     

中国天然林保护工程区目前急需解决的技术问题和对策

分析了天保工程不同区域存在的基本矛盾和问题,从面临的众多问题中总结归纳出退化天然林恢复与重建、非木质林产品资源开发利用、天然林近自然采育更新和结构调整、工程区防灾减灾和森林健康状况保持、天然林资源动态时空分析与评价等5个重大而急需解决的技术问题;提出了推广应用现有技术成果、针对新问题设立课题研究和引进国际先进理论技术为工程服务的总体对策;并针对5大问题进行深入分析,提出了人工促进退化天然林恢复、森林近自然经营及健康状态监测等解决问题的关键理论和技术要点。     

Medicinal plants in old-growth, degraded and re-growth forests of NW Pakistan

Many old-growth forest stands in northwest Pakistan have been structurally transformed as a consequence of logging and livestock grazing, some of which are thereafter left to secondary succession. These forests represent an important resource for local inhabitants who gather and sell medicinal plants as part of their livelihood. With this in mind, the main objectives of our study were: (1) to assess differences in the structure of the tree layer and the abundance of medicinal plants among differently transformed forests, (2) to evaluate the recovery potential of medicinal plants under re-growth forests, and (3) to assess relationships between tree stand structural characteristics and the occurrence of medicinal plants.The first step of the study involved creating an approximate map covering an area of 90 km² for five forest-use types (old-growth forest, forest degraded by logging, derived woodland, agroforest and re-growth forest). Fifteen plots per forest-use type were randomly allocated at altitudes ranging from 2200 m to 2400 m asl, within which the abundance of 10 locally important medicinal herb species was assessed.The study stands differed greatly in tree basal area, which was highest in old-growth forest (48 m² ha⁻¹), lowest in agroforest areas (6 m² ha⁻¹) and intermediate in re-growth forest (20 m² ha⁻¹). All ten medicinal plant species were encountered in old-growth and in re-growth forests, but only five of these species also occurred on agroforest plots. The mean coverage of study medicinal plants was highest in old-growth forest (7%), low in forest degraded by logging, derived woodland and agroforest (0.3-2%), and intermediate in re-growth forest (4%). The Jaccard abundance based similarity index indicates a considerable similarity (0.6) between re-growth and old growth forest for both trees and medicinal plants. The overall abundance of medicinal plants increased with increasing tree basal area and canopy cover. The abundance of some particular species decreased; however, the most sought-after medicinal species Bergenia ciliata, Valeriana jatamansi and Viola cancescens increased with tree basal area within specific forest-use type and also across forest-use types. In conclusion, our data suggest that anthropogenic forest degradation leads to a reduction in the abundance of economically viable medicinal plants for the study region. It is further indicated that this can be reversed if degraded forests are allowed to regenerate.     

金坝林场人工用材林地、林木价值量初步估算

富宁县国有金坝林场面积10 109hm2,其中人工用材林5 410.7hm2,林木蓄积616 900m3,分别采用林地期望价法、重置成本法、收获现值法、木材市场倒算法等对该林场人工用材林地及林木资产进行了估算.估算结果,林地地价1 952.23万元,林木价值为6 867.60万元.     

论闽北天然林保护与发展

对闽北天然林现状及存在问题进行了分析,提出要从加强森林自然保护区建设、实施天然林保护工程、加强天然次生林经营管理以及建立生态公益林补偿制度等方面,加快天然林建设与发展,实现天然林持续经营。     

南酸枣天然林生长规律研究

对南酸枣天然及人工状态下的生长过程研究表明 ,南酸枣天然林胸径生长高峰期在 15年生左右、树高生长高峰期在15～ 2 0年生 ,材积生长高峰期在 2 0年生左右 ,南酸枣人工林的胸径、树高生长峰值比天然林的出现时间早 8～ 10a,峰值大。经过人工培育 ,南酸枣具有更强的速生性 ,人工造林效果好 ,在森林分类经营中具有广阔的发展前景