Participatory technology development for incorporating non-timber forest products into forest restoration in Yunnan,Southwest China

Indigenous knowledge has become a topic of considerable interest within the research and development environment. Incorporating indigenous knowledge into state-led ‘top-down’ conservation and development programmes, however, is still a great challenge. This paper presents a case from Yunnan, Southwest China, in which indigenous knowledge has been integrated into the development of an agroforestry model with non-timber forest products for the Sloping Land Conservation Programme (SLCP) by using a participatory technology development (PTD) approach. This approach was adopted to increase the likelihood that technologies developed would be suitable for resource-poor households. It is expected that integrating indigenous and scientific knowledge, will lead to positive ecological and economic outcomes. Finally, the paper argues that the integration of indigenous knowledge in both forestry policy formulation and implementation is important in the context of sustainable forest management in mountain areas.     

Attitudes of local people towards conservation and Gunung Halimun National Park in West Java,Indonesia

This paper examines local residents attitudes towards conservation and Gunung Halimun National Park, in West Java, Indonesia. A questionnaire survey and informal interviews are conducted among 74 households, in three villages, in and around the park. The survey reveals that almost all people knew about the existence and the laws of the park. Many people recognize and understand the importance of the global conservation of the park. In addition, most people agree that local participation is indispensable for conservation. Furthermore, people tend to be eager to use secondary forests or scrubs rather than primary forests or old secondary, recognizing the use of forest ecosystems in a sustainable manner. However, many people would like to claim the right to use the forests and lands within the park. People are only interested in meeting their daily needs from the park at the moment. Fortunately, they hope to participate in the park administration and are also enthusiastic about cooperating with related stakeholders including government authorities and NGOs. The results of the survey can be summarized as follows. Firstly, the local community does not have enough information about the park and, consequently, people only follow the compulsory laws. Secondly, local conservation knowledge and the global objectives of park management cannot be harmonized because of the lack of information and agreement concerning the park between local people and government authorities. People do not have certain incentives to conserve biodiversity, as they cannot get any benefits from the park. Thirdly, in spite of these adverse findings, it largely depends on the government authorities capabilities whether the integrated park management can succeed or not, because people still have positive attitudes towards local participation.     

云南西双版纳棕榈藤的民俗和经营方式

经验表明：在当地的水平上,自然资源的可持续发展没有使当地的群落完全投入以及本地人们的参与.云南的西双版纳,在资源的可持续和保护的基础上,当地人与自然资源和生存环境建立了非常紧密的关系.植物的遗传多样性,如棕榈藤的管理是通过农业和林业的方式在当地的群落中实施,如民间传统的桑帕巴哇（村社藤类保护林）和旱谷地-藤园（轮歇地棕榈藤传统栽培体系）.     

Geographies of Governance Across La Amistad International Park

ABSTRACT

This study analyzes the levels of local stakeholder participation and the emergence of polycentric governance among buffer zone stakeholders in the La Amistad International Park (PILA) of Costa Rica and Panama. This investigation adds a geographical approach to common pool resource (CPR) theory to examine and better understand the management structure and integrated conservation and development of a binational park. It considers two of Ostrom’s institutional arrangements for CPR success: (a) collective-choice arrangements and (b) multiple layers of governance. A qualitative case study approach with semi-structured interviews, document analysis, and participant observation is used. Results reveal the current management structure exhibits varying degrees of fortress conservation. Greater stakeholder involvement has been attempted; however, these measures differ greatly across the regions with some success achieved on the Pacific side of La Amistad, but less success on the Caribbean side. Variations occur primarily due to asymmetries in funding, personnel, strength and number of park-related associations, and tension over indigenous rights.     

Local Knowledge of Alternative Forest Resources

SUMMARY

Attempts to impose regional conservation strategies from the top down without local participation are doomed to failure. Even so, this does not negate the critical importance of promoting international transboundary conservation. This paper draws on a research project which examined transboundary cooperation in the 136 complexes of protected areas that adjoin across international boundaries, examples of internationally divided ecosystems. The results of an international survey demonstrate that such transboundary cooperation is already occurring in 82% of the cases, although most of it is at relatively low levels. Analysis reveals that numerous different variables correlate with cooperation but, not surprisingly, the most important ones are distinctly human variables relating to human relationships. This strengthens the proposal that sustainability of conservation projects depends on inclusion of all stakeholders and development of a supportive constituency. While international organizations play crucial roles in educating, equipping, and facilitating transboundary conservation, they cannot impose it. International contributions are instrumental, but ultimate sustained success depends on the day-to-day involvement and efforts of those on the local level who must do the interacting.     

社区自然资源管理的五个基本要素

本文介绍了社区自然资源管理的5个基本要素:①当地人是自然资源管理的主体,充分赋权于当地人,包括项目决策权、实施参与权、知情监督权、管理维护权、监测评估权;②尊重乡土知识、乡土人才,重视能力建设;③关注农村妇女和弱势群体的参与和能力建设,倡导性别平等及公平的发展观;④在当地村规民约基础上建立社区管理制度和管理组织,促进当地村民的自我管理、自我发展;⑤有偿使用、有偿管理、有偿服务,增强当地村民对项目的拥有感,实现项目的可持续性.     

Certification of a Community-based Forest Enterprise for Improving Institutional Management and Household Income: A Case from Southeast Sulawesi,Indonesia

Forest certification for community-based forest management was designed to strengthen an area’s forestry functions while simultaneously alleviating poverty by developing the existing community forest. It is fundamental for forest certification to maintain the economic benefits for certified local sellers and balance conservation goals with increasing local incomes. This study explores how FSC certification of a community-based forest enterprise in Southeast Sulawesi in Indonesia could improve effectively field situations of community forest management and strengthen local peoples’ financial benefits and social perceptions towards conserving forests. FSC group certification was introduced in the area of teak community forest of several villages in 2005. Because of local strong interest in group certification, the size of certified forests, the number of group certification members and the amount of certified wood harvested gradually increased. The support of a local NGO and an international NGO contributed towards successful establishment of group certification and establishment of a small-scale forestry enterprise producing certified wood in a sustainable manner. These NGOs played important roles in establishing strong relationships between producers and consumers, strengthening local forest management institutions, and promising social and economic benefits to the local people.     

Creating trust in institutions in Russian forest localities

Russia is a country with a low level of trust. In consequence, companies working in Russia have to emphasize the development and maintenance of trust with all their interest groups. In this paper we study how trust is built up at the local level with municipalities and local communities. Local level interest groups, however, seem to be less significant for companies in contemporary Russian countryside. This paper will provide an analysis of why local level interest groups are weak and what the consequences are. The paper also discusses legislation and regulations affecting social structures in the Russian countryside showing why and how much social responsibility is transferred to companies. In addition, the paper discusses whether private governance regulation, such as forest certification, will help local communities to be heard.The paper applies Douglass North's approach to economic development with formal and informal institutions, and also the literature on trust and the social responsibility of enterprises. Formal institutions such as national legislation and international privately controlled rules of FSC certification are compared with informal practices at the local level.Cooperation with companies and environmental organizations has complemented traditional Russian social responsibility and increased cooperation between the different interest groups. NGOs can also help local communities to be heard, but since companies are more concerned with the trust of their clients, weak municipalities remain humble receivers of aid. Globalization also makes companies pay more attention to their competitiveness, which will exert pressure on the government to arrange social security and strengthen municipalities. Structural changes in Russia will, however, take time, since Russia not only has to tackle the construction of new formal institutions but it must also deal with the increasing effects of globalization as it changes the traditional structures of democracy and a market economy.     

中国自然保护中的政府和国际组织博弈分析

近年来, 博弈论在分析与解决社会、经济及生态环境问题中得到了广泛应用.非营利性国际组织逐渐成为中国自然保护领域的一股新生力量, 影响着中国自然保护工作的开展.在对政府和国际组织在自然保护中的不同作用和利益差异进行分析的基础上, 运用博弈理论探析两者的相互影响, 并以中国虎保护战略调整为案例, 分析了两者的博弈过程.对于中国政府而言, 应在认清自身和国际组织在自然保护中的利益差异基础上, 根据自身利益最大化原则, 制定和优化本国自然保护战略.     

Silvopastoral Practices and the Condor Bioreserve,Ecuador

Abstract

The Condor Bioreserve initiative has the potential to serve as a model of integrated watershed management for developing countries. Within the region, landowners and settlers, government agencies and multiple non-governmental organizations face the challenge to modify land uses to best serve the tripartite goals of managing water resources, preserving critical habitat for biological conservation, and maintaining livelihoods. Livestock, especially cattle, are a valued commodity for people in the region. At the same time, increased tree cover on private land can provide many benefits such as increased income diversity, soil retention, and improved conditions for biological conservation. Silvopastoral systems can accommodate the desires of local landowners for livestock while addressing conservation goals of increased tree cover. A review of such systems and related conditions in the Bioreserve region and Ecuador is followed by reviews of other examples from the Andes region and other mountainous parts of the world. Suggestions include promoting forestry systems with fuller canopies through a rating system in park connector areas and buffer zones, local value-added timber processing, consideration of timber certification, and continuing current successes, such as extensionists promoting tree-related projects, markets for forestry products derived from private lands, community tree nurseries, and improved pastures incorporating trees.     

Bushmeat Poaching and the Conservation Crisis in Kahuzi-Biega National Park,Democratic Republic of the Congo

Summary

The gorilla and elephant populations of Kahuzi-Biega National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) have recently suffered from intensive commercial and subsistence poaching. In just four years, the highland sector of the park lost more than 95% of its elephant population and about 50% of its gorilla population. This tragedy was precipitated by the recent political and economic crises in the region. Many factors contributed to increased hunting of wildlife for food known as “bushmeat.” Among the principal factors were starvation and economic desperation in local communities, the spread of small arms, and the collapse of park protection during the civil wars. The incentive to hunt gorillas in the park may have developed gradually with the collapse of the Mobutu regime, the influx of refugees, and the two subsequent civil wars. Local re sentments felt toward the park and its authorities may have contributed to the willingness of local people to engage in illegal exploitation of wildlife resources. By promoting ecotourism and improving the infrastructure of the park and surrounding villages, the Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature (ICCN) and the German Technical Agency for Cooperation (GTZ) have made great efforts to improve local conditions. Local people, including park guards and guides, established a non-governmental organization that played an important role in the spread of conservation knowledge and the reduction of conflict among local people. Since the park began employing former poachers in 1999 and resumed conservation ac tivities, gorilla poaching has decreased significantly. The broader civil conflict continues and sporadic poaching is still common. This paper con siders and recommends optimal and urgent conservation measures to im prove the protection of the park and its gorillas.     

The influence of non-governmental organisations on the creation of Natura 2000 during the European Policy process

The implementation of the EU habitats directive 92/43/EEC and the creation of the coherent network ‘Natura 2000’, presumably the most ambitious supranational initiative for nature conservation world-wide, is facing increasing difficulties. The process has been delayed beyond hope for the initial time-frame of an existing network being met by the year 2004. Political will and acceptance amongst national administrations and rural population is lacking. In the highly complex political structure of the European Union, presently in a stage of rapid change and development, new forms of political influence have evolved for non-governmental organisations (NGOs). This study, using social research methods (problem-focussed interviews and literature studies), examines the aims, strategies and activities of the involved political actors, and illustrates the shifting political influence of NGOs over the past 10 years with regards to the development and implementation of the directive. In the theoretical framework of multi-level governance, the political influence of the forest owner associations CEPF and BNFF, as well as the environmental NGOs WWF and Fern, together with other involved actors on the development and the implementation process of the EU habitats directive (HD) is described. Drawing on the advocacy coalition framework (ACF) approach of Sabatier and Jenkins-Smith, a strategic alliance between the Directorate General (DG) Environment and the WWF with the common goal of successfully establishing Natura 2000 can be ascertained. This coalition, however, was found to be opposed in the political subsystem of Natura 2000 by a less firmly established and less influential coalition of land users and DG Agriculture. The discussion highlights the relationship between the involvement level of interest groups in the political process and the acceptance level of legislation among their members, also with regard to the EU enlargement and the transposition of EU legislation.     

Village Common Forest Management in Komolchori,Chittagong Hill Tracts,Bangladesh: An Example of Community Based Natural Resources Management

Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHTs) in Bangladesh covers about 50% of the country’s natural forest resources, providing sources of food, fuel-wood, medicinal plants, timber and water supply to the ethnic communities living in the area. The ethnic communities in CHTs have been managing a small patch of forest known as a village common forest (VCF) adjacent to their village following a community based forest management approach. Taking a case study of Komolchori VCF, this study examined dependency of community people on VCF resources, their conservation-related attitudes and awareness, indigenous management, and forest phyto-sociological structure. A survey and focus group discussions were conducted among the settlers and non-settlers in Thana Chandra para and Jaduram para villages of the Komolchori VCF. Key informant interviews were conducted with two non-government organizations (NGOs) and the headman in the study area. To assess phyto-sociological structure of vegetation, 25 quadrats (10 m?×?10 m) were laid out randomly. Results revealed that non-settlers were more inclined towards VCF conservation and women played a crucial role as they were directly involved in forest products and water collection. Soil erosion caused by shifting cultivation has made community people more aware of forest degradation. Training program provided by NGOs on different horticultural techniques and a “Saving-Credit program” improved livelihood conditions and reduced pressures on VCF resources. Locally devised traditional rules guide the community people to manage the VCF sustainably. The vegetation survey showed that the density of Komolchori VCF was 1420 trees/ha with a basal area of 27.98 m²/ha. The Shannon–Weiner index, species diversity index and index of dominance in the study area were 2.91, 0.62, 0.09, respectively.     

Sustaining Tropical Forest Biodiversity

Abstract

Tropical forests are very rich in biological diversity and form an important economic and ecological resource. This biodiversity is of great value for communities living in or near these forests as a ready source of subsistence and cash income, and for the world at large as a source of tropical timber and non-timber products and a repository of genetic and chemical information. However, this biological complexity is diminishing rapidly. We analyze the main human (anthropogenic) actions causing loss of tropical forest biodiversity along with the strategies of management for forest biodiversity. Not only is the biophysical component important in management for biodiversity, but the action participation and support of local people, the national government and international cooperation as a whole, arc essential for an effective and sustainable development of tropical forests. This integrated development strategy ensures that socio-economic and environmental benefits are provided for present and future generations.     

Land use transformation in the mountainous mainland Southeast Asia region and the role of indigenous knowledge and skills in forest management

The mountainous mainland Southeast Asia region, that covers adjoining parts of Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and China, contains the region's largest remaining tropical forest. The people living in the forested mountains, who belong to a diversity of ethnic minority groups, possess a wealth of local knowledge and skills in forest management. With rapid decrease in forest area, implementation of forest conservation policies, improved access to market and replacement of shifting cultivation with permanent cropping, land use and management in the region has been rapidly changing. Some indigenous knowledge and technology in forest management will inevitably continue to be lost in the process, but not all. This paper shows how local forest management systems have been adapted to deal with the change, with specific focus on deployment and adaptation of indigenous knowledge and skills. First background on the region and its traditional land use systems will be provided. A review will then be made of the cropping system changes that have been taking place and their driving forces and how local farmers have adapted indigenous knowledge and skill in forest management to meet current needs and conditions. Cases drawn from studies in the region will illustrate how deployment of indigenous technology not only helps the farmers to improve their productivity but can also provide services in forest regeneration and biodiversity conservation. To do this farmers, including those who were former migratory opium growers, make use of the knowledge of their own environment and locally available genetic resources and the community's organizational and management skills. It will also be shown that farmers’ knowledge and skills are not static, but continually revised and integrating modern inputs as well as transfer of new ideas and innovations.     

茶秆竹民族植物学及其意义

文章应用民族植物学和文化人类学方法,调查粤西北山区茶秆竹生产历史和方式,总结了产地人们认识、利用和管理茶秆竹的传统知识和经验及其对生物多样性的影响。结果表明：怀集茶秆竹出口历史长达170年。在20世纪80年代,原产地已形成了一套科学合理的茶秆竹种植、抚育和管理方法。约80％的家庭经济收入中的80％以上来源于茶秆竹生产。与20年生杉木、杉竹混交林相比,茶杆竹纯林单位平均年产值分别减少49％和52％。所以需正确认识和利用荼秆竹的优良品质和名声,在政府部门的正确引导下,发展茶秆竹和乔木的综合经营,继续为社会经济的健康发展和生物多样性保护做贡献。     

自然保护区环境公益与当地居民权益问题分析——以云南大山包黑颈鹤自然保护区为例

从自然保护区的定义出发,讨论了自然保护区在现实经济性、人类情感、生态可持续发展的需求满足以及动植物自身权利的保护需要的利益追求中可能给当地居民带来的利益和损害,论证了保护区居民的权利项,最后提出以法治原则、公益优先原则、合理补偿原则和社会参与原则来解决保护区的环境公益与居民个人利益的冲突问题.     

Forest Structure Under Different Management Regimes in the Western Lowlands of Nepal

ABSTRACT

For landscape level conservation and rural sustenance, forests outside of protected areas are becoming increasingly important. Since most outside forests in the lowlands of Nepal are under government control and utilized as open access resources, their feasibility to achieve these objectives is questionable. We compared forests inside (with three decades of strict protection) and outside of protected areas (under government control and proposed as community forests) to assess the ecological sustainability of outside forests and to provide baseline data on structure of outside forests so that effectiveness of community forestry (after implementation) can be evaluated in the future. Our results indicate that outside forests were in a degraded condition with low tree, sapling and seedling densities and lower species diversity. Trees in lower dbh (diameter at breast height) classes were absent in these forests. Although the canopy layer was not significantly different, the ordination of plots and species showed that species composition of understory and the ground layer were different than protected forests. The present condition of outside forests is not only ecologically unsustainable but also cannot fulfill the demands for forest products of local people. The inefficiency of government to monitor against exploitation has been responsible for present conditions. We recommend that community forestry programs, which are successful in improving conditions of degraded forests in the mountains of Nepal, should be widely implemented in lowland areas (Terai) and proposed community forests should be handed over to local communities as soon as it is practicable.     

The indigenous hill-farming system of Khasia tribes in moulvibazar district of Bangladesh: Status and impacts

Rapid economic growth of the Khasia people has resulted from a most successful betel leaf farming system practiced within the fringe of reserved forests, where government policies have facilitated effective use of the local people as a labour force for production, protection and conservation of biodiversity of the surrounding forests. Khasia tribes have traditionally grown betel leaf plants on naturally occurring trees. Deforestation is a serious problem in Bangladesh, whereas the Khasia people living within forests are protecting trees for their livelihood, including selling betel leaf, collecting fuelwood and consuming and selling fruits from support trees. It is a profitable yet sustainable forest production system, maintaining soil fertility, stable production and optimal family size, and has created employment opportunities for the people living within and outside the forests. It has enhanced the supply of socially required betel leaf to the local markets, contributed to price stability, and generated some export revenue. However, the revenue of growers has been reduced by plant diseases and the capture of resource rent by middlemen. Economic benefits could be further increased through government initiatives to improve management and the marketing system. This paper is based on a presentation at the International Conference on Economics of Sustainable Forest Management, University of Toronto, Canada, May 20–22, 2004.     

Barriers to Sustainable Forestry in Central America and Promising Initiatives to Overcome Them

Summary

Over the past decades, Central America has suffered some of the highest deforestation rates worldwide. Vast tracts of forest have been converted to agriculture and pasture, encouraged by ill-designed government policies and perverse incentives. Recently, however, progress has been made toward more sustainable use of forest resources by adjusting forest policies, decentralizing forest administration, and providing conducive incentives through environmental service payments and forest certification. Valuable forest management experiences have been gained by indigenous and peasant communities. Community forestry in Central America is being increasingly recognized by national governments. Examples include the community concessions in Peten, Guatemala, and community-based forest operations in Honduras and Nicaragua. Stakeholder networks have been established that strengthen horizontal and vertical alliances among wood producers and manufacturers and that help promote both community development and forest conservation. However, illegal logging, poor law enforcement, and lack of economic viability of forest management involving nontraditional species still provide barriers to the sustainable management of tropical broadleaved forests in the region. Future challenges include improved governance through decentralized forest administration, private sector involvement, and third-party certification. To improve traceability and value adding, development of integrated supply chains of forest and wood products is recommended.