Assessing Small-Scale Forestry by Data Base for Forest Owner Analysis

In Sweden, as in other countries with a growing and increasingly diverse population of forest owners, there is an apparent need for more detailed quantitative data of high quality in order to describe and understand present forest conditions and predict and explain future trends. Therefore, the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences has developed a Data Base for Forest Owner Analysis (DBFOA) by combining existing forest measurement statistics, gathered on a regular basis by the Swedish Forest Agency since 1992, with records of the individual forest owners. The database consists of self-reported measurement statistics in terms of cuttings, cleaning, scarification and planting from about 30,000 forest management units. It includes information on the owner age, gender, residential proximity to the management unit and the extent of work undertaken by the owner. From 1999 it also indicates whether the forest is certified. This paper demonstrates the use of the database by presenting results from (1) a comparison of management practices on properties that are certified with those that are not, and (2) an examination of how the area of planting and final felling have changed from 1999 to 2006 in total and between male and female forest owners. Results from the first analysis show that the willingness to certify increases with the size of the forest property and also that harvesting activities are more frequent on certified than non-certified properties. The second analysis, show a higher ratio of final felling during 2003–2006 on properties owned by women than properties owned by men.     

Certification of a Community-based Forest Enterprise for Improving Institutional Management and Household Income: A Case from Southeast Sulawesi,Indonesia

Forest certification for community-based forest management was designed to strengthen an area’s forestry functions while simultaneously alleviating poverty by developing the existing community forest. It is fundamental for forest certification to maintain the economic benefits for certified local sellers and balance conservation goals with increasing local incomes. This study explores how FSC certification of a community-based forest enterprise in Southeast Sulawesi in Indonesia could improve effectively field situations of community forest management and strengthen local peoples’ financial benefits and social perceptions towards conserving forests. FSC group certification was introduced in the area of teak community forest of several villages in 2005. Because of local strong interest in group certification, the size of certified forests, the number of group certification members and the amount of certified wood harvested gradually increased. The support of a local NGO and an international NGO contributed towards successful establishment of group certification and establishment of a small-scale forestry enterprise producing certified wood in a sustainable manner. These NGOs played important roles in establishing strong relationships between producers and consumers, strengthening local forest management institutions, and promising social and economic benefits to the local people.     

Experiences of a Forest Owners’ Cooperative in using FSC forest certification as an environmental strategy

Yusuhara Forest Owners’ Cooperative (YFOC) in Kochi Prefecture in Japan received its forest management certification from the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) in 2000. YFOC is recognised as the resource manager of its members’ forests, and they were the first organisation to gain such certification in Japan. With the continuous efforts of selling FSC certified wood in the domestic housing construction market, YFOC has substantially increased their timber sales in recent years. It is a noteworthy event in Japanese small-scale forestry, which has been struggling with declining economic performance for many years. This paper analyses the detail of forestry activities and changes which occurred in YFOC after certification by FSC. An interesting effect of increasing economic performance is found to have come from an unexpected direction. It is concluded that the FSC certification system is a possible tool to revitalise Japanese small-scale forestry as well as obtain favourable environmental outcomes.     

Not seeing the forest for the trees? The environmental effectiveness of forest certification in Sweden

Forest certification can be conceived as one of many rapidly growing non-state market driven (NSMD) modes of governance. The environmental effectiveness of forest certification is oftentimes evaluated by indicators such as stringency of standards, degree of participation by key stakeholders, certified area, etc. In political science, forest certification as an NSMD governance arrangement is usually evaluated in terms of the quality of the decision-making procedures (input legitimacy) rather than for its problem solving capacity, i.e. its environmental performance or effectiveness. We conceptualize environmental effectiveness as a function of a standard's environmental stringency and the area covered by the standard, the latter dependent on the degree of social acceptance. Accordingly, the environmental effectiveness of different certification schemes ought to be evaluated taking both the standard stringency and the area certified into account. The forest certification process in Sweden illustrates how forestry history and regional differences affect the development, acceptance and adoption of different certification schemes. Industrial and Northern forestry owners favour the NGO led Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) standards whereas Southern small-scale private forest owners preferred to develop an alternative scheme the Programme for Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC). We demonstrate that there is a bifurcated geographical coverage of the two certification schemes along a north–south divide coupled with a similarity in standard stringency and a high degree of acceptance in their different areas of dominance. Both forest certification schemes display a similar degree of environmental effectiveness — but in different parts of the country and for different types of ownership.     

Ecology-oriented House Builders and FSC-certified Domestic Timber in Japan

Forest owners’ cooperatives are one of the leading organizations in the forest sector in Japan. Yusuhara Forest Owners’ Cooperative (YFOC) in Kochi Prefecture is one of such examples, which obtained FSC forest certification as a resource manager of the forest, which belongs to more than 1,200 small-scale forest owners. YFOC has successfully expanded sales of FSC-labeled timber in recent years. Most of their certified timber is purchased by house builders in urban cities including Osaka. This paper analyzes who desires FSC-certified timber from YFOC and why. Six case studies are reported, which reveal that ecology-oriented house builders are interested in using FSC certified timber because of traceability of the timber, price advantage from direct dealing, environmentally sound forest management of YFOC, and relatively high quality of the timber.     

Skepticism of state action in forest certification and voluntary set-asides: a Swedish example with two environmental offsetting options

Non-industrial private forest owners in Sweden are encouraged to mitigate environmental damages from forestry on their properties under a principle of “freedom with responsibility,” although the level of mitigation is generally left to the owners’ discretion. One voluntary measure private forest owners are encouraged to take is setting aside a part of their productive forests for conservation. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate how non-industrial private forest owner beliefs concerning both their own and the Swedish state’s responsibility for nature protection differ among owners of certified forests, who automatically leave a set-aside, and those who have stayed out of forest certification but have decided to leave a set-aside. Results of a Heckman selection bivariate probit model show that the more a respondent believes the state is responsible for fulfilling environmental goals compared to private forest owners, the less likely it is that an owner of a non-certified forest will leave a set-aside for conservation. Beliefs about responsibility do not, however, differ among owners of certified and non-certified forests. From a policy perspective, Swedish government agencies may have difficulty steering specific measures taken by private forest owners who are interested in conservation but have stayed out of forest certification regimes.     

森林认证对森林可持续经营的影响及其在中国的实践

开展森林认证是促进我国森林管理与国际接轨并实现森林可持续经营的有效途径。文中概述了森林认证的发展概况以及森林认证对森林可持续经营的影响,并以我国吉林省经过认证的森林经营企业为例,通过对森林认证前后的对比,以及与未经过认证的国有林业局对比,分析森林认证对经济、社会和环境等方面的具体影响。结果表明,森林认证的开展在经济上可行,使社会受益,对环境友好,能够促进森林可持续经营。文中还对我国开展森林认证工作提出了具体措施建议。     

Certification of sustainable forest management practices: a global perspective on why countries certify

In this paper, we examine national conditions that encourage the growth of a private regulatory environmental system to govern forests. Economic, institutional and social capital variables for 117 countries are used to examine factors determining forest certification under the Forest Stewardship Council and domestic competitor schemes. Although economic factors, such as forest exports and GDP, are important in explaining the likelihood that a country's forest management practices are certified, the regression results support the idea that economic institutions and the social context under which firms and forest landowners seek certification matters. The ability of citizens to influence the political process is also significant; in particular, the likelihood that firms and forest owners will seek to certify their forest practices is significantly reduced if women have little or no effective voice in civil society.     

Certification of sustainable forest management practices: a global perspective on why countries certify

In this paper, we examine national conditions that encourage the growth of a private regulatory environmental system to govern forests. Economic, institutional and social capital variables for 117 countries are used to examine factors determining forest certification under the Forest Stewardship Council and domestic competitor schemes. Although economic factors, such as forest exports and GDP, are important in explaining the likelihood that a country's forest management practices are certified, the regression results support the idea that economic institutions and the social context under which firms and forest landowners seek certification matters. The ability of citizens to influence the political process is also significant; in particular, the likelihood that firms and forest owners will seek to certify their forest practices is significantly reduced if women have little or no effective voice in civil society.     

瑞典林业与森林认证

面对全球森林资源匮乏,生态环境日益恶化的问题,保护环境、保护森林已成为人类的共识。国际社会、各国政府及非政府组织为实现森林可持续经营提出了一些倡议,并采取了一系列的行动。森林认证正是在这种背景下,由非政府组织作为一种促进森林可持续经营的市场机制提出来的。文中从介绍瑞典林业经营和森林认证现状入手,分析了瑞典现行森林认证体系产生的背景、服务的群体及其特点,提出了我国目前开展森林认证工作需要解决的问题及相关的建议,论述了开展森林认证对我国实施天然林保护及可持续经营的意义。     

Analyzing Strategies to Enhance Small and Low Intensity Managed Forests Certification in Europe using SWOT-ANP

Small forest holders own approximately 55 % of European forests. Forest certification can effectively support smallholders in environmental and socio-economic terms and increasing their access to certification is a priority for all the certification systems. With the aim of gaining a better insight into the smallholder certification scenario, this study identifies and analyzes the main factors influencing the diffusion of the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) smallholder certification in Europe. Potential strategies to help FSC meet the requirement of smallholders—and as a consequence enhance their access to certification—are pointed out. First, European FSC certification reports were reviewed; second, a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats-Analytic Network Process (SWOT-ANP) analysis was applied. The review of the reports shows that FSC certification allows achieving substantial environmental and social improvements, making a valuable contribution to ordinary management. The SWOT-ANP analysis reveals a common awareness that the FSC scheme has been customized for the small-scale forestry over the last years—indeed, the certificates issued annually are increasing—but the need to make further progress and to provide adequate technical-managerial support to smallholders during all certification phases still emerge. Results from the economic analysis highlight that certification may be a good opportunity to increase commercial relationships and exchanges, by facilitating the entrance of certified products to dedicated high-value markets. Findings also highlight social and environmental shortcomings concerning forest workers conditions and management practices.     

森林认证的现状与发展趋势

森林认证出现于20世纪90年代初,10年来,森林认证在全球范围内取得了快速的发展。文中介绍了森林认证的起源和发展现状,指出了森林认证的发展趋势,并对我国开展森林认证提出了建议。     

Comparing management schemes for forest certification and timber-legality verification: Complementary or competitive in indonesia?

Indonesian small-scale forest holders are facing a dilemma due to the implementation of a mandatory national timber-legality verification scheme and an internationally popular forest certification scheme. The problems arise from limited financial, technical, and administrative information concerning the most preferred scheme and the “imperfection of such a scheme” for long-term business needs. Using the Forest Certification Assessment Guide (FCAG) this paper identifies the characteristics of four third-party forest certification schemes currently working in Indonesia, namely FSC, PEFC, LEI, and SVLK. An online questionnaire was used to survey a wide range of respondents about the future development of contested schemes and those preferred by small-scale forest holders. Our findings show that although FSC scheme obtained the highest score and is considered the best scheme according to the FCAG, small-scale forest holders prefer SVLK scheme, which had the lowest FCAG score because of its mandatory nature and available subsidies. Statements by the four schemes’ proponents, which delegitimize other schemes, reveal they are in competition especially in winning market acceptance and local adaptability. Finally, we suggest proponents enhance aspects where their schemes are lacking and contrive a comparable certification scheme in order to induce willingness to be certified.     

中国FSC森林经营认证不符合项分析

作为提高森林经营管理水平、促进森林可持续经营的一种制度创新,森林认证对森林生态保护和建设以及世界林产品贸易均具有影响。森林管理委员会(Forest Stewardship Council,FSC)认证是目前全球最具影响力的森林认证体系,不符合项是针对FSC认证标准层面开具的企业在开展森林经营过程中违反认证标准所包含的原则总和,通过对不符合项进行分析,可以总结出我国已通过认证的森林经营企业经营状况与FSC标准的差距。文中从FSC网站收集中国开展FSC森林经营认证的80家企业的191份审核报告,对FSC认证的发展现状和认证机构开展审核时提出的不符合项进行分析。结果发现,企业在环境影响、森林监测、当地社区、劳动者权利、森林经营方案编制方面与FSC认证标准存在差距。应从加强企业森林认证动力、企业森林认证能力和技术建设以及国家政策支持等方面进一步提升,进而提高森林认证对我国森林经营管理的作用。     

中葡非木质林产品认证标准比较

中国森林认证体系与葡萄牙森林认证体系均为PEFC认可的森林认证体系,中葡2国是通过PEFC认证的非木质林产品经营单位数量最多的2个国家。文中对中葡2国的森林认证体系、非木质林产品认证相关标准及认证程序进行了比较,发现2国认证体系在标准结构、认证程序、认证不符合项的整改时间、证书的有效期方面存在差异,但认证标准在内容上均有相对应的条款;研究结果可为中国森林认证体系的改进以及非木质林产品经营单位选择认证体系及认证机构提供参考。     

Small Scale Forest Owners’ Responsibilities: Results from a Swedish Case Study

Requirements on businesses made by society, public and customers for taking different responsibilities have increased, i.e., balancing economic, environmental and social concerns. Based on literature about corporate responsibility and small scale forest owners this article presents a case study of small scale forest owners?? responsibilities in achieving sustainable forest management and Swedish Forest Agency??s local office holders?? expectations. Interviews have been made with ten small scale forest owners. The results show that no obvious conflict exists between economic and environmental responsibilities. The financial benefits for the owners for taking more environmental and social responsibility are small. The two office holders that were interviewed expect forest owners to take responsibilities. The weight that the interviewed owners give to their wishes is low.     

A typology of small-scale private forest owners in Sweden

Abstract

Planning instruments have to be consistent with the underlying values of the forest owners to have an influence on their management activities. The aims of the present study were to identify different types of Swedish forest owners, to quantify their objectives and to validate a previous, qualitative study of the objectives of the small-scale forest owners. A survey was conducted and forest owners were classified by means of cluster analysis into five types: the “economist”, the “conservationist”, the “traditionalist”, the “multiobjective owner” and finally the “passive owner”. Significant factors characterizing these owners are presented and discussed. The results showed that clear subgroups of forest owners can be differentiated by their objectives and confirm recent studies suggesting that a sole emphasis on economic benefits is not desirable from the forest owners’ point of view. The findings should give a better understanding of the behaviour of the small-scale forest owners and provide a basis for further research, counselling and development of forest policy.     

森林认证与生态良好

详细论述了森林认证与生态良好之间的辩证关系,介绍了森林认证的概念、机制和体系,回顾了森林认证的国内外进展,详细分析了森林认证对促进森林可持续经营进而促进生态良好的积极作用。森林认证作为一种市场机制正在为促进森林可持续经营发挥着积极作用。森林可持续经营意味着森林三大效益的有机结合和协调统一,也就是生态良好、社会有益和经济可行。森林认证能促进森林可持续经营,也就意味着森林认证能够促进生态良好。     

政府在森林认证中的作用探讨

森林认证作为促进森林可持续经营的市场机制, 在世界范围内取得了快速发展。它由非政府组织发起, 而政府作为参与方之一在大多数国家森林认证的发展中发挥了重要作用, 包括提供森林认证所需的法规政策环境、创建森林认证体系、规范和开发认证林产品市场、制定鼓励政策和确保公平合理的国际贸易规则等。作为一种市场机制, 森林认证强调各利益方的共同参与, 并依靠市场运作。因此, 认证需要与政府保持一定的独立性。文中对各国政府在森林认证中的作用进行阐述, 并探讨我国政府在森林认证中应发挥的作用。     

The Restricting Effects of Forest Certification on the International Trade of Wood Products

Forest certification has increased the cost of companies which has affected the international trade of wood products. This paper examines forest certification costs of companies, and based on this, uses partial equilibrium to analyze its trade restriction effects, and uses space price gradient field model to check whether it is a substitution for tariff barriers. Our conclusion shows that forest certification has restricted the trade of wood products due to its high certified cost, and clarifies that in the case of tariff reduction, trade of wood products are hindered by different levels and different costs of forest certification. This paper implies that efforts should be made to increase the amount of certified forests worldwide. It is necessary to lower the certified cost and important that government policy measures to support certification should include consideration of who bears the cost, support for aggregation of smallholder growers and improved communication in timber supply chains.