Comparison of type and depth of lysimeter for measuring the leaching losses of nitrogen under urine patches

Abstract. A study of the leaching losses of nitrate under urine patches in irrigated and non-irrigated dairy pastures in the South East of South Australia was undertaken with repacked and monolith lysimeters 1 m deep, and with monolith lysimeters 150, 300 and 450 mm deep. The aim was to quantify differences in measurements of drainage and nitrogen fluxes for these different lysimeters. Drainage of water and N flux were found to vary significantly between types and depths of lysimeters. Drainage volumes in repacked lysimeters were 78% and 33% more than in monolith lysimeters in irrigated and non-irrigated paddocks, and N fluxes were 5 and 3 times higher in repacked lysimeters respectively. The results indicate that lysimeter estimates of recharge rates and N fluxes to water tables are best determined by leaching studies which are longer term, and use deep monolith lysimeters. Shorter term studies and the use of shallow or repacked lysimeters have potential to distort conclusions.     

稻田氮素淋失测定方法的研究进展

氮素淋溶是稻田氮素向周围水体迁移的重要途径,氮以NO3–-N淋溶的形式进入水体,造成的地下水污染问题越来越引起人们的关注,有关稻田氮素淋溶的损失已开展了许多研究,所采用的研究方法不一。本文总结讨论了稻田土壤氮素淋溶的常用测定方法,主要包括土壤溶液提取法、原状土柱法、土钻取样法以及计算机模拟法和同位素示踪等方法,分别对其优缺点以及应用进行了阐述;同时对计算氮素渗漏总量的方法进行了总结,主要包括水分平衡法、达西定律法、小区渗漏池法和大型原状土柱等方法,以期为稻田氮素淋溶损失的相关研究提供技术支持和科学依据。     

Comparisons of methods for measuring the leaching of mineral nitrogen from arable land

Comparisons were made between 1988 and 1991 to evaluate three methods of estimating the leaching of mineral nitrogen (N) from unstructured freely draining sandy loam and loamy sand soils. The studies compared the drainage patterns and quantities of N (almost exclusively nitrate) leached from monolith lysimeters with those estimated from ceramic suction cups and soil core extracts. The latter two methods gave direct measurements of the mineral N concentrations in drainage, but required an estimate of the drainage volume calculated from meteorological observations and evapotranspiration equations to give total N leached. A bromide tracer was also used to confirm conclusions from nitrate leaching studies. There was a delay in the onset of drainage from free draining lysimeters because they lack the subsoil matric potential of field soils. However, total annual drainage measured by lysimeters or calculated from meteorological observations was similar, providing that return to field capacity was correctly identified in the field soil. During the first year there were discrepancies between methods which were attributed to soil disturbance during lysimeter and/or ceramic cup installation. In the second and third years of the experiment, estimates of N leaching losses using the lysimeters and ceramic cups were in good agreement. Nitrate concentrations in soil solution at a depth of 130 cm measured from soil core extracts were smaller than found by the other methods during the second year and the peak concentrations were significantly different (P<0.05). However, total overwinter N leached was not significantly different. Thus, while lysimeters and cups can be used to quantify leaching losses on unstructured, free draining soils if used correctly, the use of soil core extracts is questionable.     

Aufbau und Betrieb einer Lysimeterstation zur Erfassung der Verlagerung von Pflanzenschutzmitteln im Bodenprofil

Engineering and operation of a lysimeter station for the estimation of pesticide leaching through soil profiles An above ground, air-conditioned, lysimeter station was constructed for measuring pesticide leaching into soil profiles (Fluvisol; Cambisol). Specially transport in soil macropores was investigated by using sprinkler irrigation simulating high precipitation. Twelve soil monoliths (30 diameter, 100 cm depth) can be investigated simultaneously. Engineering and operation of this station are described. The lysimeters consist cf stainless steel cylinders with a special leaching water collector and low pressure equipment. In the soil monolith tensiometers with electronic pressure transducer and temperature sensors are installed. Measured data are recorded with a PC continously.     

农田土壤环境监测渗漏池系统的构建技术及应用

粗放的农田管理措施导致耕地质量连年下降,过量的投入品从农田流失至河流湖泊,特别是农田养分、重金属和农残等的淋溶加剧了农业面源污染的风险。渗漏池作为农业环境监测的重要装置,可分析土壤渗滤液的各成分及其淋洗特征,建立运移模型,评估不同农业措施对农田生态系统的影响,进而为完善农田管理措施提供技术支持。该文针对农业环境研究中的主要渗漏池类型,归纳总结了各类渗漏池的构建与布设方法,对渗漏池中的土壤装填、土壤表层隔离和渗漏液取样的方法等进行了系统描述,分析了不同渗漏池类型的优缺点,讨论了影响渗漏池监测结果的主要因素,并结合渗漏池在农田环境监测中的发展现状,提出了建议与展望。总体而言,各类渗漏池各有优缺点,渗漏池的构建应以具体研究需求为导向,结合地质地形条件、作物种植环境及自身建设水平等情况,在试验可接受的偏差范围和建设预算内,有针对性地构建适宜自身条件平台的渗漏池,从而实现低成本和高精确度的研究体系。     

Retarded leaching of nitrate measured in monolith lysimeters in south-east Nigeria

At Onne in South-east Nigeria, drainage water was collected from four monolith lysimeters and analysed for nitrate. The lysimeters contained an acid sandy loam. At the start of the first rainy season two lysimeters received urea labelled with ¹⁵NO₃^– and two received no nitrogen fertilizer; all four were uncropped in the first year.
The peak concentrations of ¹⁵NO₃^– and of unlabelled (soil) NO₃^– were found after 2.5 pore volumes of water had passed through the lysimeters. Using the same soil in the laboratory after fine sieving, the peak concentration of tritiated water was found at 1 pore volume whereas nitrate leaching was retarded. The pattern of nitrate leaching was well described by miscible and immiscible models which included an adsorption coefficient for nitrate. Over the 2 years 81.4% of the ¹⁵N added at the start of the first rainy season was recovered in the drainage water.     

大型蒸渗仪的设计、建造与安装（英）

蒸渗仪是用来研究营养元素在农田中的运移的系统,本文系统描述了一种大型蒸渗仪的设计,建造与安装。试验采用湖北地区典型土壤类型黄棕壤与潮土,在华中农业大学校园内每种土壤安装16个大型蒸渗仪。蒸渗仪采用减少土柱的扰动的方法建造,并填充凡士林减少土壤水分的边缘流动。蒸渗仪采用外径630 mm高700 mm厚10 mm的PVC管作材料。土柱建成后安装在预制PVC底座上,底座中间有一圆孔外接淋失液收集装置。淋失液收集后用来测定淋失液离子含量。试验结果表明,相同土壤土柱之间淋失量差异不显著,没有检测到水分的边缘流动;同时建设效率高,费用低。     

Development and practical test of a weighable groundwater lysimeter for floodplain sites

Presently, the soil water balance of flood‐influenced soils in fluvial plains is insufficiently described. The new development of a weighable groundwater lysimeter is the basis for recording the water‐balance components precipitation, evapotranspiration, groundwater recharge, capillary rise, and interaction with the water course. Soil‐hydrologic measuring setups at two floodplain sites of the Elbe river serve for direct comparability of lysimeter measurements with data obtained on site. A groundwater control was designed for lysimeters that automatically adjusts the current groundwater level at the floodplain measuring setups and quantifies inflow into or outflow from the lysimeter. It turned out that the lysimeter developed is capable of identifying the individual water‐balance quantities at high accuracy. Contrary to previous assumptions, it was possible to prove groundwater recharge for the floodplain sites.     

控制地下水位减少节水灌溉稻田氮素淋失

为探讨高效的稻田灌排管理模式,降低稻田氮素淋失风险,该文利用装配有地下水位自动控制系统的蒸渗仪,研究地下水位调控对节水灌溉稻田氮素淋失的影响。结果表明,稻田排水控制限的提高可减少控制灌溉稻田地下排水量,控制地下水位处理1稻田地下排水量为179.4mm,分别较控制地下水位处理2(195.9mm)和控制地下水位处理3(285.8mm)稻田减少8.4%和37.2%。随稻田排水控制限的提高,控制灌溉稻田地下排水中铵态氮(NH4+–N)浓度增加,硝态氮(NO3-–N)浓度下降。与控制地下水位处理2和控制地下水位处理3稻田相比,控制地下水位处理1稻田地下排水中NH4+–N质量浓度均值分别增加9.3%和27.3%,地下排水中NO3-–N质量浓度均值分别减少32.6%和1.8%。稻田排水控制限的提高显著减少了控制灌溉稻田NO3-–N淋失量(P0.05),控制地下水位处理1稻田NO3-–N淋失量为0.27kg/hm2,分别较控制地下水位处理2(0.43kg/hm2)和控制地下水位处理3(0.88kg/hm2)稻田显著减少0.16和0.61kg/hm2(P0.05),控制地下水位处理2稻田NO3-–N淋失量较控制地下水位处理3稻田显著减少0.45kg/hm2(P0.05)。采用控制排水技术,适当提高控制灌溉稻田的排水控制限,可有效降低稻田NO3-–N淋失对地下水污染的风险。该研究可为制定满足控污减排需求的稻田灌排管理模式提供指导。     

Comparison of soil solution chemistry assessment using zero-tension lysimeters or centrifugation

The composition of soil solutions obtained from the field varies with the method of extraction. Variations in sampling methods and the difficulties in extracting representative samples from soils in space and time, can explain divergent results. In this study we compared soil solutions from a forest soil in northern Sweden obtained by a centrifuge drainage technique and by zero-tension monolith lysimeters. Zero-tension lysimeters were destructively sampled, and centrifuge solutions from this soil were compared with that from soil outside. In our study we found three major differences in the solute composition between the centrifugate and the lysimeter leachate: (i) larger concentrations of most solutes in the mor layer centrifugate than in the mor layer leachate, (ii) accumulation of nitrate in the lysimeters, and (iii) larger concentrations of base cations in the zero-tension lysimeters below 0.3 m depth. Water contents within the lysimeters were up to 3.5 times greater than under natural conditions and the water yields from the lysimeters indicate that water residence time ranged from < 1 to >5 years. This study shows that differences in results from the two methods are due to inherent differences in the methods themselves and not just to the collection of different soil waters. The hydrological anomaly and disturbance induced by the zero-tension lysimeters affects the solute chemistry and thus the applicability of the results to field conditions.     

COLLECTION AND EVALUATION OF LARGE SOIL MONOLITHS FOR SOIL AND CROP STUDIES

A technique is described which allows collection and transportation of undisturbed soil monoliths in glass fibre casings 80 cm in diameter and 135 cm deep. The technique has been used to obtain 150 monoliths from a range of soil types in England and Wales, including soils with compact or chalky horizons. Measurements from lysimeters containing a non-swelling sandy loam and a swelling clay showed that the hydraulic properties of both soils were not affected by encasement of the profiles, provided that supplementary drainage outlets at the depth of field mole drains were provided in the lysimeters containing the clay soil. Aeration of the clay monoliths was comparable with that of the same soil in the field. When winter wheat plants growing on the lysimeters were surrounded by a similar guard crop, yields were equivalent to those obtained in the field. Edge effects were not significant; plants grown adjacent to the lysimeter wall yielded the same weight of grain per unit soil area as those in the central area of the monolith.     

Evaluating the transferability of measurements from simple constructed non weighable gravitation lysimeters to predict the water regime on field scale—a case study

The transfer of lysimeter‐based water balances to field scale is still a challenge, whereby the reliability of measured data from non‐weighable gravitation lysimeters (NWGL) is more questioned than the transferability of data from more modern lysimeter devices. The hypothesis of this study was to predict the water regime of a drained arable field (81 ha) based on measurement results of three neighboring (distance of 20 km northern Altmark region Saxony‐Anhalt, Germany) NWGL (surface area of 1 m², depth of 1.25 m) for three hydrological years (HY) from 11/1/2012 to 10/31/2015. For the first two HY, manually collected monthly outflow rates from the NWGL were comparable to registered (data logger) drain rates of the field. But NWGL outflow was underestimated as compared to field drainage in the third HY. This deficit in the lysimeter water balance was caused by heavy rain events in summer 2014 in combination with wind and interception by the crop canopy (Zea maize). Precipitation did not match the NWGL surface whereas this canopy effect did not play a role at the field site. Thus, further numerical simulations of the soil water flow with the HYDRUS 1D/2D‐software package, which were based only on input data determined at the NWGL (stand precipitation, potential evaporation/ transpiration) without taking into account the canopy effect, described registered outflow of the field adequately for the whole observation period. But determining precipitation matching the NWGL surface, which was not registered due to the missing weighing mechanism, is absolutely required to interpret deviating measured outflow rates.     

Calculation of nitrogen mineralization and leaching in fallow soil using a simple dynamic model

Simple models describing nitrogen processes are required both to estimate nitrogen mineralization in field conditions and to predict nitrate leaching at large scales. We have evaluated such a model called LIXIM, which allows calculation of nitrogen mineralization and leaching from bare soils, assuming that these are the dominant processes affecting N in bare soil. LIXIM is a layered, functional model, with a 1-day time step. Input data consist of frequent measurements of water and mineral N contents in soil cores, standard meteorological data and simple soil characteristics. The nitrate transport is simulated using the ‘mixing-cells’ approach. The variations in N mineralization with temperature and moisture are accounted for, providing calculation of the ‘normalized time’. An optimization routine is used to estimate the actual evaporation and the N mineralization rates that provide the best fit between observed and simulated values of water and nitrate contents in all measured soil layers. The model was evaluated in two field experiments (on loamy and chalky soils) including treatments, lasting 9–20 months. The water and nitrate contents in soil were satisfactorily simulated in both sites, and all treatments, including a ¹⁵N tracer experiment performed in the loamy soil. In the chalky soil, the calculated water balance agreed well with drainage results obtained in lysimeters and independent estimates of evaporation. At both sites, N mineralization was reduced by the incorporation of crop residues (wheat or oilseed rape straw); the amounts of nitrogen immobilized varied between 20 and 35 kg N ha^?1. In the treatments without crop residues, the mineralization rate followed first-order kinetics (against normalized time) in the loamy soil, and zero-order kinetics in the chalky soil. In the latter soil, the mineralization kinetics calculated in situ were close to the kinetics measured in laboratory conditions when both were expressed against normalized time.     

Assessing the bioavailability of dissolved organic phosphorus in pasture and cultivated soils treated with different rates of nitrogen fertiliser

A proportion of dissolved organic phosphorus (DOP) in soil leachates is readily available for uptake by aquatic organisms and, therefore, can represent a hazard to surface water quality. A study was conducted to characterise DOP in water extracts and soil P fractions of lysimeter soils (pasture before and after, and cultivated soil after leaching to simulate a wet winter-autumn) from a field trial. Data on DOP in drainage waters from the field trial were also generated. In water extracts, used as a surrogate for soil solution and drainage water, 70-90% of the total dissolved P (TDP) concentration was made up of DOP, of which 40% was hydrolysable by phosphatase enzymes. Proportions of hydrolysable DOP to TDP in drainage waters of the field trial were less than in water extracts due to enhanced DRP loss via dung inputs, but still large at 35% of DOP. Analysis of lysimeter soils by sequential fractionation indicated that several organic P fractions changed with land use and due to leaching. Further investigation using NaOH-EDTA extracts and ³¹P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy indicated that the greatest changes were a decrease in the concentrations of orthophosphate diester P and an increase in orthophosphate monoester P. This was attributed to mineralization by cultivation and plant roots and also to the leaching of mobile diester P. This study suggests that in such soils with a dynamic soil organic P pool, the concentration of readily bioavailable P in soil solution and drainage waters and the potential to impair surface water quality cannot be determined from the DRP concentration alone.     

Small-scale spatial variability of selected soil biological properties

A strategy for sampling soil from intact monolith lysimeters was established based on measurements of spatial heterogeneity within the lysimeter area. This was part of an ongoing study to determine relationships between soil microbial diversity and nutrient loss by leaching. The sampling protocol had to allow collection of soil on a regular basis (as opposed to destructive sampling) and ensure high spatial independence of subsamples. On each of the two sites (one developed under organic crop management and the other under conventional crop management), ten 15 cm soil cores (sampling points) were taken from three areas (replicates) of 50 cm diameter (lysimeter surface area) and separately analysed for biotic (microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen; arginine deaminase activity) and abiotic (total carbon and nitrogen) soil properties. The data were tested for variability, expressed as coefficient of variance (biotic and abiotic), and spatial heterogeneity using geostatistics (biotic properties). The biotic soil properties showed significant differences among sampling points, whereas the abiotic parameters were useful in differentiating on a larger scale, i.e. between sites. For all soil properties tested, the differences among the replicates were smaller than those between the sites or among points indicating that, in the main experiment, all treatments can be sampled following the same pattern. Geostatistical analysis and fitting of an exponential model showed that a spatial structure exists in the biotic soil properties and that the samples are independent beyond separation distances of 25-30 cm. A revised sampling pattern consisting of 11 samples per lysimeter is described.     

华北平原水浇玉米-小麦轮作农田硝态氮的淋失

Soil water deep drainage and nitrate (NO3^-) leaching losses below the root zone were investigated in a 1 ha wheatmaize rotation field under traditional agricultural management that local farmers generally follow in the North China Plain, using the soil water balance method and NO3-N concentration in suction samples. Water drainage, and NO3-N distribution and leaching losses exhibited pronounced spatial and temporal variability. Soil water deep drainage and NO3- N leaching loss mostly occurred during the summer maize growing season (rainy season), which coincided with irrigations and significant rainfall. On average, soil water deep drainage was 39 and 90 mm in the 1998/1999 and 1999/2000 cropping years, correspondingly, accounting for 10% and 19% of the total irrigation plus rainfall, respectively. The NO3-N leaching loss from soil and fertilizer N below the root zone ranged from 6 to 17 (averaging 12) and 30 to 84 (averaging 61) kg N ha^-1 in 1998/1999 and 1999/2000, correspondingly, equivalent to 1.4%-4.1% and 7.3%-20.3% of N fertilizer applied,respectively. The results indicated that water and fertilizer inputs could be greatly reduced, thus improving water and nutrient use efficiency in this region.     

Simulation of water flow and solute transport in free-drainage lysimeters and field soils with heterogeneous structures

Lysimeters are valuable for studying the fate and transport of chemicals in soil. Large‐scale field lysimeters are used to assess pesticide behaviour and radionuclide transport, and are assumed to represent natural field conditions better than laboratory columns. Field lysimeters are usually characterized by a free‐draining lower boundary. As a result, the hydraulic gradient is disrupted, and leachate cannot be collected until the bottom of the lysimeter becomes saturated. We compared heterogeneously structured, free‐drainage lysimeters and field soils with respect to water flow and solute transport. Numerical simulations were carried out in a two‐dimensional heterogeneous sandy soil under unsaturated water flow conditions with the CHAIN_2D code. Three different soil structures (isotropic, horizontal, and vertical) were generated, and Miller–Miller similitude was used to scale the hydraulic properties of the soil. The results showed that ponding occurs at the bottom of the lysimeter for the three soil structures and that it occurred faster and was more pronounced with the vertical structure (preferential flow effect). Breakthrough curves of a conservative solute (bromide) showed that solutes are moving faster in the field than in the lysimeters. Fewer differences between lysimeters and field soils were found with the horizontal soil structure than with the isotropic and vertical structures.     

Determining soil water‐balance components using an irrigated grass lysimeter in NE Austria

The water balance of a certain soil profile in a certain time interval is subjected to changes of soil water content within the respective profile, and fluxes at its upper and lower boundary. Weighing lysimeters are valuable instruments for water‐balance studies. Typically, mass changes—thus, changes of soil profile water content—are detected by a weighing system, while seepage water outflow is measured by a tipping bucket, and precipitation data originate from a rain gauge. Hence, evapotranspiration as unknown component can be determined by solving a simple water‐balance equation. However, using separately measured precipitation data may cause implausible (negative) evapotranspiration. In this study, change of soil profile water content, seepage water, precipitation, and evapotranspiration were determined directly from 10‐min lysimeter data from 2011. Precipitation measured with the lysimeter was in total 20% greater than rain‐gauge values. Even dew formation was measured and considered as water‐balance component; however, its total amount was rather low. Evapotranspiration calculated on daily and hourly base indicated a sound correlation with measured data, but measured values were considerably smaller. Both calculated and measured dew amount were of the same magnitude. Comparison of lysimeter evapotranspiration with daily calculations (neglecting dew) and hourly computation (considering dew) delivered similar results. Generally, the utilized lysimeter facility and the specific data management provided sound water‐balance components with high accuracy and temporal resolution, respectively.