Response of the phenylpropanoid pathway to Venturia inaequalis infection in maturing fruit of ‘Braeburn’ apple

Summary

This study investigated the activities of key enzymes in the phenylpropanoid pathway and the accumulation of phenolic products in apple peel in response to infection with Venturia inaequalis [(Cooke) G. Wint.]. We compared healthy apple peel with apple peel showing symptomatic scab lesions, and with peel tissue from 1 – 2 mm around the scab lesions in fruit 1 month before maturity [140 d after full bloom (DAFB)] and at physiological maturity (175 DAFB). Infection with V. inaequalis enhanced the synthesis of some phenolic compounds. Compared to healthy peel, scab lesion tissue had ≤ 3.1-times higher hydroxycinnamic acid content, ≤ 1.3-times higher dihydrochalcone content, and ≤ 3.9-times higher flavan-3-ol content. Scab lesions showed slightly higher phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, chalcone synthase, chalcone isomerase, flavonol synthase, and dihydroflavonol 4-reductase activities. The total amount of phenolics remained relatively stable between the two sampling dates, except for epicatechin and caffeic acid which decreased in amount toward fruit maturity, and levels of catechin which increased in more mature fruit. During fruit maturation, only chalcone synthase and chalcone isomerase activities decreased in all tissues examined. This study showed that the phenylpropanoid pathway in apple fruit peel changed significantly following infection with the apple scab pathogen.     

苹果采收适期与果实生物学指标的相关研究

对新红星、金冠等５个品种果实生物学指标在果实成熟和贮藏期变化规律进行了研究，并对其各自在判断果实成熟和确定采收适期中的作用和意义进行了评价。认为果实糖和酸含量、糖酸比例、可溶性固形物、维生素Ｃ等项指标只能指示果实品质的优劣；果肉硬度在果实成熟衰老过程中变化激烈，但进入成熟期有一缓慢变化时间，也降低了其判断成熟的精确性，只可作为参考指标；果实淀粉的消长规律直接反映果实的成熟状态，是果实成熟的重要标志。果实剖面淀粉磺－碘化钾染色面积大小，在一定程度上指示了果实成熟度，不同品种有其特定染色图谱。     

黑穗醋栗果实成熟过程主要营养成分变化规律

黑穗醋栗果实的各种营养物质，在整个发育成熟过程中，各阶段的变化不同。薄皮和厚皮两品种表现出相同的变化规律。果实内总糖含量随果实成熟逐渐增加，果实成熟后略有减少，总糖中以果糖和葡萄糖为主；有机酸含量随果实成熟逐渐减少。接近成熟时增长缓慢；维生素Ｃ、氨基酸的相对含量的幼果中最多，随着果实的成熟逐渐减少。氨基酸在果实成熟时相对含量最低，其后略有增加；而维生素Ｃ则一直下降，果实成熟时下降缓慢。相关分析表明     

Short-term storage of Discovery apples

Summary

The effects of store temperature and atmosphere, picking date and ethephon application on the quality of the early apple cv Discovery after storage for up to 42–44 days were investigated. Quality deterioration during storage was retarded by the use of low O₂ or high CO₂ atmospheres and low temperatures. Quality declined with advancing maturity, and pre-harvest ethephon application markedly increased flesh breakdown post-storage, particularly in later-picked fruit.     

Harvest parameters to improve the storability of high quality ‘Reinette du Canada’ apple

Summary

‘Reinette du Canada’ apple (Malus domestica Borkh.), which has been declared a Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) product throughout the European Community, is severely affected by bitter pit during storage, but increasing demand for organic produce requires chemical post-harvest treatments to be replaced with organic practices. The objective of this work was to determine the optimum stage of fruit maturity to improve the storability of high quality ‘Reinette du Canada’ apple during storage without applying post-harvest treatments. Seasonal conditions influenced fruit quality and the occurrence of storage disorders in ‘Reinette du Canada’. Harvest maturity also influenced the quality of ‘Reinette du Canada’ apple during storage, with later harvests reducing the development of bitter pit and increasing the soluble solids content:titratable acidity (SSC:TA) ratio. This study suggests that the SSC:TA ratio was a useful parameter for determining the optimum harvest maturity for high acidity, ‘Reinette du Canada’ apple. High quality fruit were obtained after long-term storage when the SSC:TA ratio exceeded 11.0, and fruit firmness at harvest exceeded 90 N. If these thresholds were not achieved, the quality of harvested ‘Reinette du Canada’ apples may not be sufficient to market fruit with the PDO designation. The results of our study also suggested that skin hue angle (hº) measurements may provide a quick and useful index that could replace fruit firmness measurements in the future.     

Effects of growth retarding treatments on apple tree growth,fruit maturation and fruit abscission

SUMMARY

Eight days after petal fall in 1991, mature 'Delicious'/MM. 106 apple trees and four days after petal fall in 1992, mature 'McintoshVMM. 106 were ringed, scored, root pruned (1 m from the trunk, two sides, 30 cm deep), or treated with ethephon (500 mg 1¹). Only ringing and scoring reduced vegetative growth. Ethephon advanced fruit maturation and fruit abscission, but root pruning did not affect the trees or fruit significantly. Mature 'Cort-land'/M.7a apple trees were root pruned 8 d after petal fall in 1991 and/or at full bloom in 1992. Root pruning reduced shoot growth, even in the year after treatment. Fruit abscission was reduced in 1991 and 1992 by root pruning in 1991, but root pruning in 1992 had no impact on abscission, in 1992. In an additional experiment, mature 'Mcintosh'/ MM.106 were root pruned 4 d after petal fall in 1991 or root pruned both in 1991 and at full bloom in 1992. Growth and preharvest fruit abscission were reduced in both the year of root pruning and the year after.     

两个苹果早熟品种果实香气成分差异及变化

采用静态顶空和气相色谱—质谱联用技术,研究了不同成熟阶段苹果早熟品种‘泰山早霞’和‘辽伏’果实的香气成分。结果表明：‘泰山早霞’果实特征香气成分为乙酸丁酯、乙酸-2-甲基-1-丁酯、乙酸己酯、丁酸乙酯、2-甲基丁酸乙酯、丁酸丙酯、2-甲基丁酸丁酯与己酸乙酯等8种,‘辽伏’果实特征香气成分为己醛、(E)-2-己烯醛、乙酸己酯、丁酸乙酯、2-甲基丁酸乙酯、己酸乙酯等6种;两品种果实成熟过程中香气成分分别以酯类和醇类为主;‘泰山早霞’含量最高的酯类为乙酸酯,而‘辽伏’为丁酸酯;两品种的醇类与酯类含量随果实的成熟显著升高,但‘泰山早霞’酯类含量在花后45 d即显著高于同时期的其它成分,并高于‘辽伏’的酯类含量,表明‘泰山早霞’酯类合成启动较早,‘辽伏’与‘泰山早霞’醇类增加较快的时期分别为花后45～60 d与花后60～75 d,表明‘辽伏’醇类成分的合成早于‘泰山早霞’。     

套袋对苹果果实钙素吸收与分布的影响

以红富士苹果(Malus domestica Borkh.cv.Fuji)为试材,进行了套袋处理,以不套袋果实为对照,测定其果实的Ca含量,研究套袋对果实钙素吸收与分布的影响。结果表明,果实套袋后,在花后40～90d,整果钙吸收量高于对照果实;从花后120d开始,对照果实整果钙含量一直高于套袋果实。此外,苹果果实在整个生长发育过程中对Ca都有吸收,花后40d内,苹果果实吸收整果钙含量的20%左右;从花后40d(套袋)到90d,果实钙吸收量迅速升高,对照果实可吸收整果钙含量的66.1%,套纸袋果实可吸收整果钙含量的73.8%;此外,在果实的成熟期仍有少量的钙吸收。果实套袋后,果实各个部分的钙含量变化与对照果实相比,果皮中钙含量明显低于对照果实,而果肉和果心的钙含量却高于对照果实。     

苹果制汁新品种鲁加4号浓缩汁贮藏过程中稳定性的影响因素

以苹果制汁新品种鲁加4号[特拉蒙(Telamon)×新红星(Starkrimson)]的浓缩果汁为试材,研究温度、pH值、糖度和果实成熟度对苹果浓缩汁贮藏过程中稳定性的影响。结果表明,温度对苹果浓缩汁贮藏过程中稳定性影响较大,贮藏温度越高,浓缩汁的稳定性越差;糖度对其影响显著,糖度越高,浓缩汁稳定性越差;pH值和果实成熟度对苹果浓缩汁稳定性也有显著性影响,浓缩汁贮藏1～2周期间,pH值与A420值呈正相关,贮藏3～4周期间,pH值与A420值呈负相关。不同采收期苹果果实出汁率、可溶性固形物含量、多酚含量、浓缩汁酸含量变化不同。果实成熟时采收制得的浓缩汁稳定性比较好。     

Delayed harvest improves red blush development and quality of ‘Cripps Pink’ apple

The poor red blush development on ‘Cripps Pink’ (Malus x domestica Borkh.) apple fruit at commercial maturity (CM) reduces the economic return to apple growers in warmer regions of the world. The effects of delayed harvest maturity up to 6 weeks following CM on the development of red blush and fruit quality of ‘Cripps Pink’ apple were investigated at two locations in Western Australia during 2003 and 2004. The red blush, export-grade fruit, total anthocyanin, cyanidin 3-galactoside, chlorogenic acid, catechin, and epicatechin of apple fruit skin tissues increased with advancement of harvest maturity at both locations in both years, whereas hue angle, concentration of phloridzin, fruit firmness, and titratable acidity (TA) of apple fruit tissues decreased with delayed harvest. The internal ethylene concentration was elevated with the delayed harvest. The concentrations of quercetin 3-galactoside, quercetin 3-arabinoside, quercetin 3-rutinoside, quercetin 3-rhamnoside, and quercetin 3-glucoside increased up to 2 weeks following CM, and then declined in 2003 at both locations and at Perth Hills in 2004. Delayed harvest resulted in improved development of red blush on the fruit surface, accumulation of total anthocyanin, cyanidin 3-galactoside, chlorogenic acid, catechin, epicatechin, and quercetin glycosides in fruit skin, SSC:TA ratio and reduced fruit firmness possibly due to the increased ethylene production.     

Nachernte-Behandlung von Äpfeln mit Calciumchlorid

From 2003 to 2006 the efficacy of post-harvest dips in calcium chloride solution was investigated for apples. Aim of these investigations was to find out the influence of different factors on the Ca-uptake of apples after harvest. The Ca-uptake of the fruit was influenced by following factors:

• the calcium chloride concentration of the dip solution,
• the duration of the dip,
• the duration of fruits' wetting,
• the apple cultivar,
• the addition of a wetting agent and
• the maturity of the fruit.

To get an appreciable Ca-uptake, the addition of a wetting agent is necessary. For a dip time of two minutes calcium chloride concentrations of 7 or 7.5% are needed. Apparently injuries of the apple skin don't appear. An elongation of the dip time or the duration of wetting increased the Ca-uptake. Cultivar and maturity of the fruit affect the Ca-uptake. The increase of the Ca-content can proved only close to the apple skin (skin to 2?cm depth).     

Comparative studies on the postharvest physiology of fruit from different species of Annona (custard apple)

Summary

Fruit of three Annona species, viz. cherimoya (A. cherimola Mill), sugar apple (A. squamosa L.) and custard apple (atemoya, Annona X) were ripened in ethylene-free air and under propylene. Differences were found in patterns of respiration, ethylene production and fruit firmness changes during ripening. Cherimoya and custard apple fruits showed two successive rises in respiration rate whereas sugar apple fruits showed only one. Ethylene production showed one main peak but the onset of rapid ethylene production occurred after the beginning of the respiration climacteric in all three species. Custard apple fruit had acceptable eating quality (as judged by sensory assessments and chemical analyses of pulp) for up to four days after first detectable softening, when ripened at 20°C in ethylene-free air or under propylene. Fruit ripened in ethylene-free air had better ripe fruit quality than fruit ripened under propylene.     

1-MCP对“岳帅”苹果呼吸速率及果实贮藏品质的影响

以“岳帅”苹果为试材,研究了1-MCP处理对“岳帅”苹果呼吸速率及果实贮藏品质的影响.结果表明:在0℃条件下经1.0μL/L 1-MCP处理的“岳帅”苹果,可以明显降低果实的呼吸速率,降低和延缓呼吸高峰,减少乙烯的生成;处理后的果实果肉硬脆度好、可溶性固形物含量高、含酸量适宜、耐贮藏,能够更好地保持果实品质.不同成熟期处理试验表明,10月8日采收的果实处理效果最佳,能够更好地保持果实品质,提高耐贮藏性.     

Carbohydrate changes in flowers,leaves, shoots and spurs of ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’ apple during flowering and fruit setting periods

Summary

Changes of carbohydrate concentrations in different parts of the flower and the surrounding tissues (leaves, spurs and shoots) were measured in apple (Malus pumila) in 1987 and 1988, during the periods of flowering and fruit setting, to investigate their importance for fruit setting. HPLC was used for soluble sugar and sorbitol analysis. Starch was hydrolysed to glucose enzymatically and glucose concentration was determined colorometrically to estimate starch concentrations. Soluble sugars plus sorbitol (the soluble pool) increased rapidly in all parts of the flower from bud burst until full bloom. In contrast, in the same period, starch concentrations decreased rapidly and reached about zero at full bloom in the storage organs (shoots and spurs), indicating starch conversion to sugars and their movement to the growing flowers. Sorbitol was the most abundant carbohydrate in all apple tissue measured, with the exception of sepals, in which glucose concentration was the highest from full bloom onwards. Sepals had much higher glucose and fructose concentrations than leaf laminae but much lower sorbitol concentrations. Although dry weight, soluble pool and starch concentrations and total soluble pool content increased in the receptacle after petal fall, sucrose concentrations and total sucrose content dramatically decreased. These results suggest a preferential mobilization and utilization of sucrose rather than sorbitol during the fruit setting period and probably an important role of sucrose metabolism in fruit setting.     

Changes in anthocyanin synthesis as an index of maturity in red apple varieties

Changes in the regulation of anthocyanin accumulation may be useful for predicting maturity in Jonathan and other early to mid-season, red apple varieties. While the level of anthocyanin at a particular stage of maturity may be related to environmental factors, the capacity to accumulate anthocyanin is a function of maturity and independent of environmental influence.

Anthocyanin is degraded in immature fruit skin as rapidly as it is formed, giving an equilibrium level that is a function of the light intensity. When light intensity is reduced (by shading), the anthocyanin level falls in immature fruit skin but continues to rise in mature fruit skin. The transition from the immature to mature stages with respect to anthocyanin accumulation occurs rapidly and precedes the normal harvest date by about two to three weeks, suggesting that this attribute might be used in the prediction of maturity in suitable red apple varieties.     

Effects of deficit irrigation on fruit maturity and quality of ‘Braeburn’ apple

Effects of deficit irrigation (DI) on fruit maturity at harvest, ripening characteristics, and changes in fruit quality during and after storage of ‘Braeburn’ apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) were studied in two experiments. In Experiment 1, irrigation treatments were a commercially irrigated control (CI), an early deficit irrigation (EDI) applied from 63 to 118 days after full bloom (DAFB), and a late deficit irrigation (LDI) applied from 118 DAFB to final harvest on 201 DAFB. Irrigation treatments in Experiment 2 were a commercially irrigated control (CI) and a whole-season deficit irrigation (WDI). These DI treatments all reduced volumetric soil water content. The LDI and WDI advanced fruit ripening but EDI did not. All DI treatments increased fruit total soluble solids (TSS) and firmness regardless of maturity but had little or no effect on titratable acidity. The differences in TSS started during fruit growth much earlier than the onset of ripening and were maintained during and following storage at 0°C. The differences in firmness also started during fruit growth and were maintained for at least 10 weeks of storage at 0°C.     

桃果实发育过程中主要营养成分的动态变化及系统分析方法研究

通过对桃果实发育过程中维生素C、可溶性糖、有机酸、游离氨基酸及蛋白质含量的测定,系统分析了它们在整个生长发育过程中的动态变化。维生素C含量呈V形的变化曲线,幼果和成熟时较高,其它时期较低;可溶性糖总量随果实的生长而增加,但还原糖与非还原糖含量的变化趋势恰好相反;有机酸、游离氨基酸和蛋白质三者含量都是幼果时较高,成熟时最低。各种营养成分的变化虽然有所不同,但与果实的相对生长速度及花后天数有明显的相关关系。另外,对果实生长发育过程中营养成分的系统分析方法也进行了研究。     

苹果果实质地软化过程中碳水化合物代谢及其关键酶基因表达的变化

以耐贮的富士苹果和不耐贮的金冠苹果果实为试材,研究果实发育和采后软化过程中糖和淀粉含量及其代谢相关酶活性变化,并分析其关键酶基因表达的变化。结果表明,淀粉含量和淀粉酶(AM)活性与果实硬度变化显著相关,且在富士和金冠果实间差异显著。随果实软化,金冠果实AM活性显著升高,而富士果实维持在较低水平,与金冠果实淀粉含量下降而富士淀粉含量低且稳定的变化规律相吻合;MdAM基因在金冠贮藏期的表达量迅速增加,显著高于富士。苹果果实蔗糖、果糖和葡萄糖含量均与成熟期果实硬度变化显著相关,贮藏期金冠果实蔗糖含量与硬度变化显著负相关,且SPS活性与硬度下降显著负相关,MdSPS基因大量表达,与此期SPS活性升高及蔗糖积累相一致。由此认为,淀粉降解参与了苹果果实软化,并与果实耐贮性关系密切,而且SPS在苹果果实蔗糖代谢和果实软化中起着重要作用,也与果实贮藏品质存在一定的相关性。     

Biochemical changes associated with hardening of endocarp in Spondias mangifera Willd. fruits during developmental stages

Spondias mangifera is a unique, fleshy, drupe fruit with a mango flavor. The hardening of endocarp during development and maturation of hog plum is a major bottleneck, which reduces the edibility of the fruits by 80% and makes them unmarketable. For the first time, three distinct maturity stages were demonstrated. Distinct pattern in change in surface color, accumulation of carotene pigments and biochemical components in fruits were observed. The decrease in chlorophyll ‘a’ and chlorophyll ‘b’ correlated well with the downhill trend in Transmittance Refractory Spectroscopy (TRS) – ‘L’, ‘a’, ‘b’ values. The decrease in the total chlorophyll along with the accumulation of carotene pigment contributes significantly to the lightness of surface color and reflected in ‘L’ hue values. Confluence of carotene and total chlorophyll on the 9th week provides a distinct marker for maturity. Complete convergence of five carpells on the 9th week after fruit set, heralds the onset of maturation in Indian hog plum and which was adjudged as visual index of maturity. Hardening of endocarp begins after attainment of optimum maturity and last for 2 weeks. Pre-climacteric plunge in respiration along with coordinated changes in pigments, and accumulation of ascorbic acid, phenols, presets the optimum maturity period of 9th week after fruit set. Pre-climacteric falls in respiration with lowest output of 40.57 mg CO₂/kg-h concentration on 9th week after fruit set indicates the attainment of fruit maturity. Harvesting of hog plum between 9th and 11th weeks provides the fruit with soft endocarp and complete edibility.     

Comparison of changes in sugars and ethylene production of cherimoya fruit grown at different seasons

Summary

Changes in fruit weight, total soluble solids (TSS), sugar content and postharvest ethylene production during fruit development were compared on fruit of cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill., cv. Big Sister) pollinated at different times (early, at the beginning of April, 1995 and late, at the end of May, 1994). Fruit weight increased by growth, independently of pollination times. Changes in TSS and sugar content were strongly affected by pollination time. In late pollinated fruits, both TSS and sugar content increased during the growth period, 110–160 d after pollination, while neither increased with fruit growth in early pollinated fruit. Moreover, changes in TSS and sugar content after ripening depended not only on pollination time but also on the growth period. With late pollination, fruit harvested after 140 d became edible after ripening. The TSS and total sugar contents, (the sum of fructose, glucose and sucrose contents) increased to about 20° Brix and above 16%, respectively. But early pollinated fruits were not edible after ripening, since total sugar content increased only to about 7%, even though they kept growing for 160 d on the tree. The maximum rate of ethylene production declined and the number of days to the ethylene peak from harvest is also reduced with growth in both cases. These changes were closely correlated with days after pollination (r>0.9) regardless of pollination time. Comparisons of accumulated temperature suggest that temperature at pollination time and during the resting period of growth affected fruit development. These results indicate that neither fruit weight nor number of days after pollination is a suitable index for harvesting time.