Mapping the territory: agroforestry awareness among Washington State land managers

There is growing interest in research to develop potential agroforestry models for temperate climates. In Washington State, recent studies and anecdotal information suggest that agroforestry is already employed by land managers, and if so, this experience should inform future research efforts. Because this population is not well defined, a mail survey was designed to: 1) Assess Washington land manager awareness of agroforestry, 2) assess perceptions of agroforestry as a land management tool, 3) assess the perceived potential opportunities or obstacles for land managers to practice agroforestry, and 4) identify landowner groups believed to be practicing agroforestry in Washington State.Three groups of land managers were surveyed: employees of the Soil Conservation Service (SCS), Washington State University Cooperative Extension Service (WSUCE) and OTHER, consisting of university faculty, private land managers, State and Federal land managers and owners of small natural resource businesses.Agroforestry was not a new concept for most (94%) respondents, further 55% of those familiar with agroforestry were practicing agroforestry or providing advice to landowners who were practicing agroforestry. Use in (government mandated) soil conservation plans on farmland (100% of all respondents) was the most frequently cited potential application for agroforestry in the state followed by range and pasture land and managing non-commercial forest land (both 84%), use on commercial forest plantation (83%) and fruit and nut orchards (61%).Diversifies land use (25%), enhanced productivity (18%), aesthetics (13%) and income diversity (13%) were the four most frequently cited potential advantages to practicing agroforestry. Lack of information (28%), lack of technical assistance (18%), establishment costs (14%) and not an established practice (14%) were the most frequently identified potential obstacles to practicing agroforestry. Respondents suggested there is great potential for application of agroforestry throughout the state, and non-industrial private forest land owners were selected for future study of this potential.     

Defining competition vectors in a temperate alley cropping system in the midwestern USA: 2. Competition for water

A study was carried out in an alley cropping system in the Eastern Maize Belt of the United States with the objective of quantifying the competition for water between trees (black walnut (Juglans nigra L.) and red oak (Quercus rubra L.) and maize (Zea mays L.). Spatial and temporal variation in soil moisture, tree and maize rooting patterns, tree and maize water uptake, and maize leaf area expansion were determined in three treatments; barrier (polyethylene root barriers separating maize and tree roots), trench (trenching without a polyethylene barrier), and no barrier (control). Significant temporal variation in soil moisture was observed in both black walnut and red oak alley cropping systems. The barrier and trench treatments resulted in higher soil moisture in the maize alley and lower soil moisture in the tree row than the no barrier treatment. Uptake of water by maize was higher in the barrier than the no barrier treatment. However, tree water uptake was higher in the no barrier treatment than in the barrier treatment because tree roots utilized water from the maize alley. Maize leaf area was negatively impacted by water stress in the no barrier treatment. Quantification of rooting patterns revealed that maize and tree roots were concentrated in the top 30 cm soil layer where water fluctuations were greatest. The barrier and trench treatments successfully eliminated the belowground root competition between trees and maize and resulted in greater leaf area and higher grain yields than the no barrier treatment. Thus, competition for water rather than competition for light seems to be critical in defining the productivity and sustainability of this alley cropping system.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The role of extension in agroforestry development: evidence from western Kenya

The extension strategy used by the CARE International in Kenya Agroforestry Extension Project (AEP) is described. This strategy is evaluated in terms of documented changes in farmer's agroforestry practices and the importance of AEP relative to other changes in economic incentives, institutional support, and land use and tenure rules for agroforestry. The project served mainly to increase awareness of the multipurpose potential of agroforestry, expand available technical options, and strengthen local institutions. Its community-based extension approach was more suitable for local conditions than commodity-based, training-and-visit, farming systems, or media-based extension. Projects are encouraged to tailor extension design to local circumstances, use community participation to guide extension priorities, and use extensionists as catalysts and information brokers.Research undertaken while the author was a Principal Scientist at the International Council for Research in Agroforestry, Nairobi, Kenya.     

The tree/crop interface — or simplifying the biological/environmental study of mixed cropping agroforestry systems

A key to understanding the biological potentials and restraints of agroforestry systems, and the environmental responses of plant components within them, is the tree/crop interface. All agroforestry systems can be studied by separating the growth and yield characteristics of the three basic sets of variables (a) the sole agricultural crop (b) the effects of the tree/crop interface on the crop and tree and (c) the growth of the tree as a whole crop.The interface can be studied wherever it occurs in natural situations, or conventional or systematic experimental layouts, but very simple forms of geometric layouts can be very space efficient.

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Resumer La interfase arbol/cultivo, o como simplificar los estodios biologicoambientales de sistemas mixtos de cultivos agrogorestales.La interface arbol/cultivo es la clave para entender el potencial y las limitaciones biologicas de los sistemas agroforestales, y de la respuesta ambiental de las plantas dentro de los mismos. Todos los sistemas agroforestales pueden ser estudiados separando las caracteristicas de crecimiento y rendimiento de los tres conjuntos basicos de variables: (a) el cultivo agricola solo; (b) los efectos de la interfase arbol/cultivo sobre el cultivo y los arboles; y (c) la plantation forestal sola.La interfase puede ser estudiada cuando ella ocurre en situaciones naturales, o en arreglos experimentales convencionales o sistematicos, pero formas simples de arreglos geometricos pueden ser muy eficientes en el uso del espacio.

     

Effect of cutting position on rooting and shoot growth of two poplar clones

One-year-old shoots from stooling beds of Populus × deltoides Walker and Populus jackii Northwest were collected in late fall to determine the effect of cutting position on rooting and growth of hardwood poplar cuttings. Cuttings with a minimum diameter of 9.0 mm were obtained from basal, middle and distal locations on the poplar shoot. Rooting and shoot growth were assessed in the greenhouse and under field conditions. Walker poplar cuttings collected from basal portions of the shoot and planted in the field had 87.6% rooting and 103.8 cm growth compared to 78.8% and 103.4 cm and 67.6% and 88.8 cm for middle and distal locations respectively. For Northwest rooting and growth under field conditions was 84.4% and 94.7 cm for basal, 78.4% and 90.5 cm for mid and 64.4% and 84.3 cm for distal locations. Rooting in the greenhouse was superior to the field. Walker cuttings had fewer roots and buds per cutting than Northwest, however, growth of Walker in the field was superior.     

FAO initiatives in agroforestry training in Latin America

In response to the request of its member countries from the Latin America and the Caribbean to help promote agroforestry, FAO has initiated a number of activities in the region. These include a regional project Demonstration and Training in Agroforestry in Latin America, an International Workshop on the Formulation of a Project on Demonstration and Training in Agroforestry for the Amazon, held in January 1993, and the project Participative Forestry Development in the Andes. Currently, FAO assistance to the countries of the region in their efforts to promote agroforestry include The Latin American Technical Cooperation Network on Agroforestry Systems, FAO's country-specific technical cooperation projects, and assistance in obtaining development-bank loans through missions of the FAO Investment Center.     

Die Anfälligkeit verschiedener Sommerweizensorten gegenüber Befall durch die beiden Weizengallmü ckenarten (Dipt., Cecidomyidae)

The susceptibility of some spring wheat varieties to the attack by the two wheat blossom midge species (Dipt., Cecidomyidae) The susceptibility of 20 spring wheat varieties to the attack byContarinia tritici (Kirby) andSitodiplosis mosellana (Géhin) was studied from 1971 to 1976 on small plots. Some varieties proved to be very susceptible, others were partly resistant. Meritus showed a high susceptibility to both wheat blossom midge species, while Arm showed a very low one. The resistance observed could not be explained by incoincidence. Of the varieties still being in trade, Opal should not be grown in areas of damage byS. mosellana. Kleiber and Kolibri are apt for this. Arin can be recommended to be grown in areas, where damage by both wheat blossom midges occurs.     

Systematic designs for field experimentation with multipurpose trees

Systematic field layouts are especially useful with MPT species for examining plant responses e.g. to density stress, and where a wide range of treatment levels are needed because of lack of previous data. Examples of a fan and a parallel-row layout are given (with suitable sets of dimensions) and the development of parallel-row designs for management trials and mixed cropping is illustrated.A revised version of ICRAF working Paper No. 12 which has been incorporated into Research Methodology for the Exploration and Assessment of Multipurpose Trees (Ed. P.A. Huxley), 1984. ICRAF, Nairobi — Financial support for the latter publication was provided by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council by means of a grant from the U.S. Agency for International Development.     

An outline of the research and education program of CIES/Consortium

The CIES/Consortium was created in 1992 for increasing the personnel capability and conducting research in natural resources, sustainable development, and human health in the Chiapas region of Mexico. Research is being conducted in four principal study areas: Highlands of Chiapas, the Lacandon rain forest, Soconusco, and El Ocote Reserve. There are four research departments: Conservation of Natural Resources, Alternative Production Systems, Health and Population, and Agroecological Technology. Agroforestry research, within the Department of Alternative Production Systems, includes agroforestry systems diagnosis in the highlands of Chiapas, ethnobotanical survey of potentially useful woody plants, silvicultural evaluation of woody forage species, management alternatives for the fallow vegetation in the Lacandon rain forest, and forest regeneration ecology and biomass dynamics in the Highlands of Chiapas and Lacandon rain forest after human interference. The CIES/Consortium researchers are also involved in the training of professionals and supervision of bachelor- and master- theses in their respective study areas. In January 1994, CIES/Consortium started a Postgraduate program in Natural Resources and Rural Development.Centro de Investigaciones Ecológicas del Sureste; since October 19, 1994 the name has changed to El Colegio de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR).     

Paraiso (Melia azedarach var. “Gigante”) woodlots: an agroforestry alternative for the small farmer in Paraguay

This paper describes the salient aspects and analyses the potential of the Paraiso Woodlot System, which is becoming popular as an agroforestry alternative to land use in the degraded acid sandy soils of the humid sub-tropical Guayaybi area of Paraguay. The system consists of a combination of paraiso (Melia azedarach var gigante) with other trees, especially Leucaena leucocephala, and annual crops.The fast growth habit, deep root system, addition of large quantities of organic matter through leaf and litter fall, compatibility with agricultural crops, high value of the sawlogs and production of substantial quantities of poles and firewood make paraiso an excellent species for agroforestry combination. Preliminary results of the trials indicate that the woodlots are successful and with increasing efforts of the extension agencies, they are being accepted as a viable alternative to traditional agricultural systems.Besides discussing the potential of these woodlots based on initial results, the paper identifies the constraints of the system and highlights the priority research areas.     

Traditional fallows in Latin America

Traditional fallow systems of Latin America have not been extensively studied from either a socioeconomic or biophysical viewpoint. Only in the past decade have some of these systems — modified shifting cultivation in the Amazon, the bracatinga (Mimosa scabrella) fallow of southeastern Brazil, the babassu (Attalea spp.) system of the Amazon margins, and short bush fallows mostly for Phaseolus bean (the so-called frijol tapado) — received any attention. Over the past century, traditional cultivators have adopted several legumes such as Mucuna spp., Lathyrus nigrivalis, Canavalia spp., and Senna guatemalensis as green manures or managed fallows in food crop production systems, which have recently been the object of studies by social and biological scientists. Longer, monospecific fallows involving woody legumes have been studied to varying degrees. The legumes include Senna guatemalensis, Mimosa tenuiflora, and Gliricidia sepium. Systems in which crop production is alternated with animal grazing of secondary vegetation include the caatinga of Northeast Brazil, the espinales of Chile, the matorrales of northern Mexico, and the chaco of Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia. A classification is proposed depending on the nature of the species (woody or nonwoody) and their composition (mono- or multispecies) and land management (burned or not). Much work is still needed in more complete characterization, determination of economic importance and potential, understanding the relationships among components, studies of nutrient cycling, and verification of the effects of shorter fallow periods of these systems.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Conflict management and participation in community forestry

In this paper consideration is first given to how community forestry practitioners have commonly understood the term participation, and why the concept of conflict does not seem to have overlapped with notions of participation. Failure to perceive conflict as inherent in participation is shown to have led to problems in implementation of community forestry programmes. The emerging awareness of conflict today is shown to be associated with the move away from community forestry in the form of village-based tree planting schemes towards community forest management, which involves devolution of state authority over natural forests. The paper presents a number of methods for managing conflict and discusses their strong and weak points. Using the experience of the introduction of participation as a comparison, the paper considers the extent to which conflict management might be adopted as standard practice by forest agencies in community forestry. The paper concludes that because of the limited mandate of forest agencies, it is unlikely that they will be able to use conflict management tools to bring about social justice in forest conflict situations. However, the paper suggests that use of such tools could result in heightened awareness of the importance of conflict and in this way improve forest practice.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Agroforestry pathways for the intensification of shifting cultivation

As a system of land use which entails the deliberate association of trees with herbaceous field crops in time, shifting cultivation is one of the most ancient, widespread and, until recently, ecologically stable forms of agroforestry. However, under pressure of population and competing uses for land and labour, traditional swidden systems have been observed historically to undergo more or less predictable processes of intensification. Since shifting cultivation is an indigenous form of agroforestry, scientific agroforestry is not, strictly speaking, an alternative to shifting cultivation, but rather a systematic approach to the recombination of its basic elements into more intensive, sustainable and politically viable forms of land use, whenever pressures signal the need for change in traditional swidden systems.Different agroforestry options open up from different stages of intensification in swidden systems. A review of evolutionary typologies of shifting cultivation gives rise to a framework for the identification of agroforestry interventions and development pathways appropriate to specific systems. technological proposals are limited to a short list of the most promising agroforestry interventions in main sequence swidden systems. These include integral taungya, economically and biologically enriched fallows, variations on the alley cropping theme, and various tree crop alternatives to annual cropping systems. Examples and quantitative data are cited to substantiate the main hypotheses behind the proposals.     

Eucalyptus planting as a response to farm management problems faced by ‘on-site’ and ‘off-site’ farmers

The success of the green revolution in the fertile and agriculturally surplus plains of western U.P. in north India led to labour shortages, and increased opportunities for off-farm investments by landowners, requiring their time and energies away from farming. These changes impelled landowners to adopt strategies which saved family labour and supervision time in cultivation. Many off-site farmers, and such on-site farmers who had a high ratio of owned land to male members in the family, resorted to tree farming, mainly eucalyptus. On the other hand, farmers in eastern U.P., with small holdings, subsistence orientation and cheap labour, showed little enthusiasm for planting eucalyptus. Based on field investigation in six villages, this paper argues that woodlot planting of eucalyptus emerged as an attractive option for landowners facing management and labour problems in western U.P., as tree farming allowed saving in family labour time and permitted greater flexibility in the timing of operations. About 60% of the total trees planted were by this category of management-constrained farmers.     

The espinal: agroforestry systems of the mediterranean — type climate region of Chile

The Central Valley of Chile is largely occupied by a pseudo-savanna called espinal consisting of a single dominant tree species, Acacia caven (Mol.) Mol. (Leguminosae), and some 215 annuals, most of which were inadvertently introduced from the Mediterranean Basin. The probable origin and current distribution of the espino (Acacia caven) and the espinales in Chile are described. Predominant production systems of the espinal in both the semiarid and subhumid regions of Chile are outlined, with emphasis on the later region. Causes of the current low levels of productivity are discussed, and various strategies for long-term improvement of the espinal are presented.     

Dynamics of swidden agriculture in East Kalimantan

The Kenyah Dayak people began to migrate from the isolated area to the Mahakam basin in the early 1950's. As the Kenyah people migrate downstream, infiltration of monetary economy into the village increases, which leads to changes of life style, social structure such as work organization and mutual aid system in daily life, and so on. In the course of a series of such changes, sustainable swidden agriculture system is also changed to a less sustainable one. The Benuaq Dayak people, however, practice sustainable swidden (paddy) — rattan forestry system while they can earn much income. The Buginese way of land utilization, swidden (paddy) — pepper production system, is the least sustainable though the pepper production is the most profitable in the region. The land utilization by the transmigrated Javanese is not so sustainable at present, but there is a possibility of its getting more sustainable because of acquisition of the land ownership.     

Agroforestry training and extension: the experience from Haiti

An agroforestry project was funded by the US Agency for International Development and implemented by the Pan American Development Foundation in Haiti from 1981 to 1991. This project is considered by many to be one of the most successful projects of its kind in Haiti, and in the tropics as a whole. Over the ten years of its implementation, the project, referred to in Haitian Creole as Pwoje Pyebwa (Tree Project), evolved from a tree production and planting project to a much broader soil-conservation-based program involving trees. This paper summarizes the training and extension systems that developed during that period. The socioeconomic background studies that were done before the project began, and the flexible, consultative mode of field-team implementation, incorporating elements of the learning process approach, were important to the success of the project. During the implementation of the project, however, concern for farmer input and participation should have been incorporated more systematically into the field operations of the regional teams.     

Chemical and physical changes required for producing dimensionally stable wood-based composites

Summary The springback of compressed wood caused by built-up internal stresses results in excessive thickness swelling of wood-based composites when exposed to moisture. Steam pretreatment can cause partial hydrolysis of hemicellulose for both hardwoods and softwoods which markedly increases the compressibility of wood and in turn significantly reduces the build-up of internal stresses in composites during hot pressing. This steam pretreatment process is a very effective method for producing dimensionally stable wood-based composites. Mild steam pretreatments (e.g. 3 to 4 min at 1.55 MPa) cause a significant reduction of the water insoluble xylan content in hardwoods and the amount of xylan, mannan and galactan in softwoods without any apparent changes in the cellulose or lignin content.The authors wish to thank G. Bastien and B. S. Lethbridge for technical assistance. W. Schwald is grateful to the Fonds zur Förderung der wissenschaftlichen Forschung, Vienna, Austria for granting an Erwin-Schrödinger scholarship (Proj. No. J0128C)     

Richtungen der angewandten Entomologie in Bulgarien

Summary For protection of agricultural crops, archards, forests and stored products a system of institutes for vegetative protection have been gradually built in Bulgaria within the last fifteen years. Now a leading part in the study of pests and diseases of plants are taking the Academy of Rural Economy Sciences and the Institutes for Plant Protection, for Forest Protection, the Zoological Institute by the Bulgarian Academy of Science, the Higher Rural Economy Institute and the Higher Forest Institute. Specialists of all ranks are working at these institutes: academicians, member correspondents, professors, senior and junior scientific collaborators and a great number of experts and assistants. Parallel with the studies of specific composition of pestilent insects, their biology is being explored and experiments are being made with insecticides. An inquiry is also being undertaken for utilization biologic combat against noxious insects. In aid of scientific institutes a dense network of services for heading the research work and combat on the terrain has been organized.

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Résumé Pour la défense des cultures agricoles, des vergers, des forêts et des produits récoltés, un système d'instituts pour la défense végétale a été successivement dé veloppé en Bulgarie pendant les dernières quinze années. Actuellement l'Academie des sciences de l'economie rurale et les Instituts pour la défense végétale ont le rôle dirigeant dans les recherches de la nocivité et des maladies sur les plantes. Dans ces instituts travaillent des spécialistes de toutes les catégories scientifiques: des académiciens, des membres-correspondants, des professeurs, des travailleurs scientifiques supérieurs et plus jeunes, avec un grand nombre d'aides-spécialistes. Parallèllement à l'étude de composition specifique des insectes nuisibles on étudie sa biologie, de même on fait des expériences avec des insecticides. Aussi on cherche à utiliser la lutte biologique contre les insectes nuisibles. Pour faciliter les instituts scientifiques dans cette lutte et leur recherche sur le terrain, un immense service est organisé dans tous les plus grands emplacements peuplés du pays.

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Generationszahl der RübenfliegePegomyia hyoscyami betae Curt.

Summary During the years 1959–1961 the number of generations was followed in Spinach Leaf Miner (Pegomyia hyoscyami betae Curt.) in central Bohemia at 310 m above sea level and in the year 1961 in southern Bohemia at 450 m. The larvae and the eggs were studied on the leaves at regular 10–14 days' intervals by controlling each plant and images by means of a sweeping method. There have been acertained two generations in the year 1959 and three generations in the year 1961 in central Bohemia and two generations in the year 1961 in southern Bohemia. The occurence of every generation of larvae on the suggar-beet was separate and the previous and the consecutive generation did not overlop.The origin of the erroneous date on 6–7 generations of this species (Rambousek, Neuwirth, 1931) has been also cleared up in this article. This statement has been taken over by Sorauer (1953) from the Review of Applied Entomology (1931) and has been lately mentioned by many authors. F. Neuwirth gave a personal information, that the statement on 6–7 generations occurence of Spinach Leaf Miner has been found on the basis of theoretical calculation (from the lenght of one generation in spring and not on the basis of the facts found in natural conditions).

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Résumé En 1959–1961 le nombre des générations de la mouche de la betterave a été observé dans la Bohème Centrale á l'altitude de 310 m audessus de la mer et en 1961 dans le Sud de la Bohème á l'altitude de 450 m. Les larves et les oeufs ont été observé sur les feuilles dans les intervalles de 10–14 jours regulierement effectués sur chaque plante et imagines en particulier par le filet fauchior. En 1959 deux générations et en 1960 et 1961 trios géné rations dans la Bohéme Centrale, ainsi que en 1961 deux générations dans le Sud de la Boheme ont été constates. La prence de chaque génération des larves sur la betterave aété separée et les générations consecutives ne malaient pas presque jamais avec les précedents.Dans cet travail l'auteur a clarifié comment une donnée fautive sur 6–7 générations de cette espéce est survenu (Rambousek et Neuwirth, 1931). Cette donnée orginante de Review of Applied Entomology [1931] a été reprise par Sorauer (1953) et elle a été ensuite récemment mentionée par d'autres auteurs. Selon une déclaration personelle de Mr. F. Neuwirth les donées des 6–7 générations de la mouche de la betterave en Tschécoslovaquie ent été acquis par une évaluation théoretique (se basant sur la durée de la génération du printemps et non sur les resultats des observations réelles dans les conditions naturelles.

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