Impact of soil compaction upon soil water balance and maize yield estimated by the SIMWASER model

The capability of the soil water balance model SIMWASER to predict the impact of soil compaction upon the yield of maize (Zea mays L.) is tested, using the results of a field experiment on the influence of soil compaction by wheel pressure upon soil structure, water regime and plant growth. The experimental site was located on an Eutric Cambisol with loamy silt soil texture at an elevation of 260 m in the northern, semi-humid sub-alpine zone of Austria. Within the experimental field a 7 m wide strip was compacted by a tractor driven trailer just before planting maize in May 1988. Compression effects due to trailer traffic resulted in distinct differences of physical and mechanical soil parameters in comparison with the uncompressed experimental plots down to a depth of about 30 cm: bulk density and penetration resistance at field capacity were increased from 1.45 to 1.85 g/cm³, and from 0.8 to 1.5 MPa, respectively, while air-filled pore space as well as infiltration rate were appreciable lowered from about 0.08–0.02 cm³/cm³ and from 50 to 0.5 cm per day, respectively. The overall effect was a clear depression of the dry matter grain yield from 7184 kg/ha of the non-compacted plot to 5272 kg/ha in the compacted field strip. The deterministic and functional model SIMWASER simulates the water balance and the crop yield for any number of crop rotations and years, provided that daily weather records (air temperature, humidity of air, global radiation, wind and precipitation) are available. Crop growth and soil water regime are coupled together by the physiological processes of transpiration and assimilation, which take place at the same time through the stomata of the plant leaves and are both reacting in the same direction to changes in the soil water availability within the rooting zone. The water availability during rainless seasons depends on the hydraulic properties of the soil profile within the rooting depth and on rooting density. Rooting depth and density are affected by both the type of the crop and the penetration resistance of the soil, which depends on the soil moisture status and may be strongly increased by soil compaction. The model SIMWASER was able to simulate these effects as shown by the calculated grain yields, which amounted in the non-compacted plot to 7512 and to 5558 kg dry matter/ha in the compacted plot.     

Effect of soil compaction on photosynthesis and carbon partitioning within a maize–soil system

Soil compaction is known to affect plant growth. However, most of the information regarding the effects of this factor on carbon partitioning has been obtained on young plants while little is known about the evolution of these effects with plant age. The objective of this work was to investigate how soil compaction affects carbon assimilation, photosynthate partitioning and morphology of maize plants during vegetative growth up to tassel initiation. A pressure was applied on moist soil to obtain a bulk density of 1.45 g cm⁻³ (compacted soil (CS) treatment) while the loose soil (LS) treatment (bulk density of 1.30 g cm⁻³) was obtained by gentle vibration of soil columns. Plants were grown in a growth chamber for 3–6 weeks and carbon partitioning in the plant–soil system was evaluated using ¹⁴C pulse-labelling techniques. Soil compaction greatly hampered root elongation and delayed leaf appearance rate, thereby decreasing plant height, shoot and root dry weights and leaf area. The increase in soil bulk density decreased carbon assimilation rate especially in early growth stages. The main effect of soil compaction on assimilate partitioning occurred on carbon exudation, which increased considerably to the detriment of root carbon. Furthermore, soil microbial biomass greatly increased in CS. Two hypotheses were formulated. The first was that increasing soil resistance to root penetration induced a sink limitation in roots and this increased carbon release into the soil and resulted in a root feedback that regulated carbon assimilation rate. The second hypothesis relies on soil–plant water relations since, due to compaction, the pore size distribution has to be considered. In a compacted soil, the peak of the pore size distribution curve is shifted towards the small pore size. The volume of small pores increases and the unsaturated conductivity decreases substantially, when compared to non-compacted soil. Due to small hydraulic conductivity, the inflow into the roots is well below optimum and the plant closes stomata thus reducing carbon assimilation rate. The effects of soil compaction persisted with plant age although the difference between the two treatments, in terms of percentage, decreased at advanced growth stages, especially in the case of root parameters.     

土壤紧实度对温室番茄生长发育、产量及品质的影响

试验研究土壤紧实度对日光温室番茄生长发育、产量及品质的影响结果表明 ,随土壤紧实度增大而植株生长发育迟缓 ,产量和品质下降 ,果实风味品质变差。而土壤疏松处理植株生长发育良好 ,座果节位下降 ,水分利用效率提高 ,果实游离氨基酸、可溶性糖和可溶性蛋白质含量增加 ,硝酸盐含量下降 ,果实风味好且产量高 ,经济系数较高。     

The effects of wheel-induced soil compaction on anchorage strength and resistance to root lodging of winter barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)

Lodging is the permanent displacement of cereal stems from the vertical. Cereal plants growing in the edge rows next to both wheel tracks (‘tramlines’) and the gaps between experimental plots (‘inter-plot spaces’), which are traversed by farm vehicles during planting operations and agrochemical application, are less prone to lodge than plants growing elsewhere in fields and plots. Previous research has attributed this phenomenon to an increase in the stem strength of edge row plants, and hence their resistance to stem lodging, resulting from reduced competition between edge row plants for resources. However, this explanation gives no consideration to the anchorage strength of edge row plants, and hence their resistance to root lodging. Differences in soil and plant characteristics between the edge and centre rows of plots of winter barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) were examined on sand, silt and clay dominated soil types. Edge rows next to tramlines were investigated on the silt and clay soil types, whereas edge rows next to inter-plot spaces were investigated on the sand soil type. Edge row plants next to both tramlines and inter-plot spaces had 58.8% greater anchorage strength and hence resistance to root lodging than centre row plants. This was attributed to (1) greater soil compaction in the edge rows resulting from wheel traffic in the tramlines and inter-plot spaces, which increased the strength of the soil matrix surrounding the roots, and (2) greater plant root growth in the edge rows resulting from reduced competition. Bulk density, root plate spread and structural rooting depth were 19, 22, and 12% greater, respectively, in the edge rows of all soil types. The results suggest that in order to reduce lodging risk, energies should be directed towards identifying agricultural practices that optimise soil compaction in the seedbed without causing significant limitations to root growth.     

Alleviation of soil compaction: requirements, equipment and techniques

The nature of soil disturbance required to alleviate soil compaction in a range of agricultural and land restoration situations is identified. Implement geometry and adjustments required to achieve the desired brittle or tensile deformation of compacted soil are discussed. Field operating procedures to achieve the required degrees of soil fissuring, loosening or soil unit rearrangement using the power units and equipment available are described. A new progressive loosening technique is identified for use within deep, extremely compacted soil profiles. Emphasis is given to the importance of making visual field checks across the loosened soil zone at an early stage, to check the desired disturbance is being achieved. Care must be taken during subsequent trafficking operations, to minimize the risk of recompaction.     

Simulation of the impact of subsoil compaction on soil water balance and crop yield of irrigated maize on a loamy sand soil in SW Spain

Irrigation of crops in Mediterranean countries can produce some conditions that favour soil compaction processes. The SIMWASER model takes into account the effects of subsoil compaction on water balance and crop yield. The objectives of this paper were: (i) to test the mentioned model using the data set collected, during three years (1991–1993), from irrigation experiments with maize (Zea mays L., cv. Prisma) on a sandy soil (Cambisols (FAO, 1990) or Xerocrepts (USDA, 1998)) in SW Spain and (ii) to estimate the influence of subsoil compaction on soil water balance and crop yield assuming long lasting heavy subsoil compaction that may be developed under irrigation for the SW Spain conditions. The model was run to simulate soil water content, evapotranspiration, drainage below the root zone, and crop yield for the same period in which the experiment was carried out. Results of simulation were compared with the experimental results in order to know the agreement between them. The results obtained show a fairly good agreement between simulated and measured values for most of the parameters considered. For the scenario in which subsoil compaction is developed under irrigation, the results simulated by the model indicate a reduction of the rooting depth. However, the effects on water balance and crop yield in this sandy soil were not relevant under the SW Spain conditions.     

Effect of plant growth-promoting bacteria and soil compaction on barley seedling growth, nutrient uptake, soil properties and rhizosphere microflora

Inoculants are of great importance in sustainable and/or organic agriculture. In the present study, plant growth of barley (Hordeum vulgare) has been studied in sterile soil inoculated with four plant growth-promoting bacteria and mineral fertilizers at three different soil bulk densities and in three harvests of plants. Three bacterial species were isolated from the rhizosphere of barley and wheat. These bacteria fixed N₂, dissolved P and significantly increased growth of barley seedlings. Available phosphate in soil was significantly increased by seed inoculation of Bacillus M-13 and Bacillus RC01. Total culturable bacteria, fungi and P-solubilizing bacteria count increased with time. Data suggest that seed inoculation of barley with Bacillus RC01, Bacillus RC02, Bacillus RC03 and Bacillus M-13 increased root weight by 16.7, 12.5, 8.9 and 12.5% as compared to the control (without bacteria inoculation and mineral fertilizers) and shoot weight by 34.7, 34.7, 28.6 and 32.7%, respectively. Bacterial inoculation gave increases of 20.3–25.7% over the control as compared with 18.9 and 35.1% total biomass weight increases by P and NP application. The concentration of N and P in soil was decreased by increasing soil compaction. In contrast to macronutrients, the concentration of Fe, Cu and Mn was lower in plants grown in the loosest soil. Soil compaction induced a limitation in root and shoot growth that was reflected by a decrease in the microbial population and activity. Our results show that bacterial population was stimulated by the decrease in soil bulk density. The results suggest that the N₂-fixing and P-solubilizing bacterial strains tested have a potential on plant growth activity of barley.     

The effect of soil compaction, profile disturbance and fertilizer application on the growth of eucalypt seedlings in two glasshouse studies

Soil damage, compaction and displacement, during logging or clearing and cultivation affects both soil physical and chemical properties and reduces growth of regenerated or planted tree seedlings. Understanding the factors involved will aid management and set limits for indicators of sustainable management in eucalypt forests. In the first of two glasshouse studies, three Eucalyptus species were grown for 110 days in soils from six forest sites in Tasmania, Australia. Sites sampled ranged from low rainfall dry forest to very high rainfall wet forest. Soil was collected from three soil depths, in 10 cm increments to 30 cm, each packed in pots to four different bulk densities, ranging from that present in undisturbed field sites to that plus 0.17 g cm⁻³. In the second study Eucalyptus globulus Labill. seedlings were grown in soil collected from disturbed and undisturbed sites, packed to two bulk densities, and fertilized with combinations of N and P. Increasing soil compaction, in Study 1, caused a proportional decrease in final mass of seedlings of up to 25%. Growth on soil from lower horizons (10–30 cm) averaged only 41% of that on topsoil, a significantly greater restriction of growth than that achieved through compaction. It was concluded that topsoil displacement and profile disturbance was a more significant form of soil damage than compaction. Above-ground dry weight of seedlings was most strongly correlated with soil total N but poorly correlated with other macronutrients. Growth of E. globulus seedlings grown on disturbed soils, in Study 2, averaged 30% of that on undisturbed sites. With added P and N on undisturbed sites growth averaged seven times that of the unfertilized seedlings indicating a general deficit of available P and N on the three soils tested. On soils from disturbed areas, there was also a response to fertilizing with N and P together but the response varied on the three soils. The effects of profile disturbance were ameliorated with fertilizer applications on only one of the soils. The results highlighted the importance of retaining topsoil in situ during forest operations.     

Effect of the number of tractor passes on soil rut depth and compaction in two tillage regimes

The initially high level of soil compaction in some direct sowing systems might suggest that the impact of subsequent traffic would be minimal, but data have not been consistent. In the other hand on freshly tilled soils, traffic causes significant increments in soil compaction. The aim of this paper was to quantify the interaction of the soil cone index and rut depth induced by traffic of two different weight tractors in two tillage regimes: (a) soil with 10 years under direct sowing system and (b) soil historically worked in conventional tillage system. Treatments included five different traffic frequencies (0, 1, 3, 5 and 10 passes repeatedly on the same track). The work was performed in the South of the Rolling Pampa region, Buenos Aires State, Argentina at 34°55′S, 57°57′W. Variables measured were (1) cone index in the 0–600 mm depth profile and (2) rut depth. Tyre sizes and rut depth/tyre width ratio are particularly important respect to compaction produced in the soil for different number of passes. Until five passes of tractor (2WD), ground pressure is responsible of the topsoil compaction. Until five passes the tyre with low rut depth/tyre width ratio reduced topsoil compaction. Finally, the farmer should pay attention to the axle load, the tyre size and the soil water content at the traffic moment.     

Crop responses to applied soil compaction and to compaction repair treatments

Crop responses to annual compaction treatments (applied to whole plots) and management treatments to ameliorate compacted soil were determined in a field experiment on a Vertisol. Initially, all treatments except a control were compacted with a 10 Mg axle load on wet soil (26% gravimetric water content compared with a plastic limit of 22%). Annually applied axle loads of 10 and 6 Mg on wet soil (25–32% soil water) tended to reduce seedling emergence, grain yield (wheat, sorghum and maize), soil water storage and crop water use efficiency (WUE). Annual applications of an axle load of 6 Mg on dry soil (<22% soil water) had little effect on crop performance. Mean reductions in the yield of five crops (three wheat, one sorghum and one maize) in comparison with the uncompacted control were 23% or 0.79 Mg ha⁻¹ (10 Mg on wet soil), 13% or 0.44 Mg ha⁻¹ (6 Mg on wet soil) and 1% or 0.03 Mg ha⁻¹ (6 Mg on dry soil). Maize grown in the fifth year of treatment application was most affected by compaction of wet soil, its WUE being reduced from 14.3 to 9.7 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ in response to an axle load of 10 Mg. Reduced WUE was associated with delayed soil water extraction at depth. A 3-year pasture ley was the most successful amelioration treatment. A wheat and a maize crop grown after the ley outyielded the control by 0.33 and 0.90 Mg ha⁻¹, respectively. So the pasture not only ameliorated the initial compaction damage, with respect to crop performance, but resulted in improvements in two subsequent crops.     

造墒与播后镇压对小麦冬前耗水和生长发育的影响

为明确造墒和播后镇压对小麦冬前耗水和群体与个体特征及产量的影响,为确定播后镇压技术和提高小麦水分利用效率提供依据,分别于2013—2014年和2014—2015年小麦生长季在河北省衡水市选用当地小麦品种‘衡4399’,分9月15日(I9.15)、9月20日(I9.20)、9月25日(I9.25)和9月30日(I9.30)4期造墒,以不造墒为对照(CK),每期处理又设每延米0 kg(G0)、95 kg(G95)和120 kg(G120)3个水平镇压的冬小麦田间试验。冬前对土壤水分和小麦幼苗生长情况进行动态监测,翌年成熟期考察产量性状并测产。结果表明,播种时土壤水分含量高,冬前阶段农田蒸散量也高。同一造墒不同镇压处理比较,I9.30处理以G95田间蒸散量最低,其他处理均以G120蒸散量最低,处理间差异显著。对苗情的影响,同一造墒不同镇压比较,苗期单株生物量、叶面积、群体总茎数以G120与G95处理较高,以G0处理较低,处理间显著水平不同;同一镇压不同造墒处理间比较,不造墒的CK总茎数显著减少,产量显著较低,且年际变化不稳定。造墒与镇压对穗数影响较大,其中造墒处理穗数显著高于CK,镇压处理对穗数的影响表现一致:G120G95G0。以上处理对产量与对穗数的影响一致:造墒处理间产量差异水平不同,但以CK最低;镇压处理间产量差异不显著,但以G0最低。造墒和镇压对产量的交互作用不显著。综上可见,墒情适宜是小麦播后镇压的基础,镇压又是提墒壮苗的保障。河北地区小麦造墒水提前到9月20—25日,播种后采用95 kg×m~(-1)镇压器便于田间操作且镇压效果较好。     

土壤压实对土壤物理性质及小麦氮磷钾吸收的影响

为了研究土壤压实对土壤物理性质以及小麦养分吸收情况的影响,在2006和2007年进行了两轮田间试验.试验中,先用旋耕机对田块进行旋耕,耕深10cm,然后使用手扶式、轮式、履带式拖拉机在旋耕后的田块中通过1次(T1)、2次(T2)、4次(T3)以对土壤进行压实处理,对照组(T4)不作任何压实处理.压实处理后再次对土壤表层进行浅旋耕,耕深5 cm,耕后用播种机进行小麦播种,小麦品种为南京-601.试验结果发现,次表层土壤的压实处理显著影响次表层土壤的容重,孔隙度,小麦蛋白质含量以及植物中N、P、K的含量.除次表层的土壤容重在T3组中最大,T4组中最小外,其他参数值在T4组中最大,T3组中最小.并且,随着次表层土壤压实程度的增加,几乎所有的参数(土壤容重除外)都有所减少.不过,与第一年相比,参数值在第二年略有增加.总之,土壤压实严重破坏土壤结构,不利于小麦对养分的吸收.     

土壤紧实胁迫对黄瓜生长、产量及养分吸收的影响

用容重分别为1.2、1.4和1.6.g/cm3的土壤进行盆栽试验,研究了土壤紧实度对黄瓜生长、产量及养分吸收的影响。结果表明,当土壤紧实度增大时,黄瓜秧苗的株高在定植后的15.d后受到显著抑制;第4叶的叶宽和叶长在定植后9～17.d内增加;茎粗则是在稍紧的土壤中(R.1.4)最大,过紧的土壤中(R.1.6)最小;根系伸长生长受阻,干物质质量及活力显著下降,根冠比降低;生物学产量、经济产量、经济系数的变化情况及植株对氮、磷、钾吸收量的变化与茎粗的变化趋势相同。在本试验条件下,容重为1.2.g/cm3的土壤利于株高及根系的生长,容重1.4g/cm3的土壤则利于茎粗、根系养分的吸收及产量的增加。     

Influence of soil compaction on carbon and nitrogen mineralization of soil organic matter and crop residues

 We studied the influence of soil compaction in a loamy sand soil on C and N mineralization and nitrification of soil organic matter and added crop residues. Samples of unamended soil, and soil amended with leek residues, at six bulk densities ranging from 1.2 to 1.6 Mg m^–3 and 75% field capacity, were incubated. In the unamended soil, bulk density within the range studied did not influence any measure of microbial activity significantly. A small (but insignificant) decrease in nitrification rate at the highest bulk density was the only evidence for possible effects of compaction on microbial activity. In the amended soil the amounts of mineralized N at the end of the incubation were equal at all bulk densities, but first-order N mineralization rates tended to increase with increasing compaction, although the increase was not significant. Nitrification in the amended soils was more affected by compaction, and NO₃ ^–-N contents after 3 weeks of incubation at bulk densities of 1.5 and 1.6 Mg m^–3 were significantly lower (by about 8% and 16% of total added N, respectively), than those of the less compacted treatments. The C mineralization rate was strongly depressed at a bulk density of 1.6 Mg m^–3, compared with the other treatments. The depression of C mineralization in compacted soils can lead to higher organic matter accumulation. Since N mineralization was not affected by compaction (within the range used here) the accumulated organic matter would have had higher C : N ratios than in the uncompacted soils, and hence would have been of a lower quality. In general, increasing soil compaction in this soil, starting at a bulk density of 1.5 Mg m^–3, will affect some microbially driven processes. Received: 10 June 1999     

CO2浓度升高、氮与土壤水分对春小麦生长及干物质积累的效应

大型人工气候室条件下进行了350μmol/mol和700μmol/mol 2种CO_2浓度,湿润及干旱2种水分处理和0mg/kg_土、50mg/kg_土、100mg/kg_土、150mg/kg_土和200mg/kg_土5种N肥施用量试验结果表明,高CO_2浓度下春小麦分蘖并未增加,低N时分蘖明显降低,因而高CO_2浓度下春小麦分蘖必须补充足够N素。CO_2浓度增高下播后55d施用N肥,春小麦叶宽、叶面积指数均增加,而不施N肥叶宽、叶面积指数未增加。充足N肥和水分有利于促进春小麦叶片生长,明显提高叶面积和分蘖。CO_2浓度增高,春小麦地上部干物质量增加与N肥施用量有关,中N和高N处理地上部干物质量明显增加,而不施N和低N时则增加不明显。干旱条件且高CO_2浓度下地上部干物质量增幅低于湿润条件,因而CO_2浓度升高对N素和水分胁迫无明显补偿作用。且CO_2浓度升高其根干物质量和根冠比未增加,相反湿润条件下不施N处理根干物质量略有降低,而根冠比明显降低。     

秸秆覆盖时间和覆盖量对冬小麦田温度效应及地上地下生长的影响

为探明华北平原灌溉条件下秸秆覆盖的土壤温度效应对冬小麦根系和籽粒产量的影响,利用大田试验研究了不同秸秆覆盖时间和覆盖量处理对冬小麦土壤温度、根系和籽粒产量的影响。试验设冬小麦播种后覆盖和三叶期覆盖,覆盖量设上茬作物(夏玉米)秸秆全量覆盖(HM)、1/2量覆盖(MM)、1/3量覆盖(LM)和不覆盖(CK)。结果表明:1)与不覆盖(CK)相比,播种后覆盖和三叶期覆盖冬小麦产量分别降低8.6%和2.0%,播种后覆盖减产幅度大于三叶期覆盖;播种后减产是由于小麦千粒重比CK降低4.1%、穗粒数降低6.6%和收获指数降低2.4%,三叶期覆盖减产的原因是收获时有效穗数比CK降低5.8%造成。播种后覆盖处理中随着覆盖量的增加千粒重、有效穗数、收获指数显著降低,三叶期覆盖处理的产量构成没有显著差异。2)秸秆覆盖对小麦分蘖期和越冬期(冬季)土壤温度具有提升作用。覆盖处理日均温平均比CK提高0.56℃;小麦返青期后随着气温的升高,秸秆覆盖具有降温作用。冬季秸秆覆盖提升土壤温度的贡献主要是提升了夜间土壤温度,返青后降温的作用是降低白天的土壤温度;冬季随覆盖量增加增温效应增大,返青后随着覆盖量的增加降温效应增加,各覆盖处理间的土壤温度差异不显著。3)秸秆覆盖促进了冬季冬小麦根系生长,秸秆覆盖处理的根长密度大于CK;返青后秸秆覆盖减弱了根系生长,至扬花期随小麦冠层覆盖度增加,秸秆覆盖与CK的根长密度差异减小。由于小麦分蘖期和越冬期土壤温度高于CK,根系生长快于CK,消耗了更多的土壤氮,造成返青—拔节期土壤全氮含量低于CK。因此,华北平原冬小麦-夏玉米一年两熟灌溉区,为了降低秸秆覆盖对冬小麦产量的不利作用,秸秆覆盖应在三叶期后实施,覆盖量采用上茬玉米秸秆产量的1/3~1/2,其余秸秆可以用于畜牧业饲料。     

Evaluation of pedotransfer and measurement approaches to avoid soil compaction

On-farm approaches are needed to help farmers avoid soil compaction. It is the purpose of this paper to document the experience of using the Horn and Fleige [Horn, R., Fleige, H., 2003. A method for assessing the impact of load on mechanical stability and on physical properties of soils. Soil Till. Res. 73, 89–99] procedures to develop improved guidance to help farmers avoid compaction in agricultural operations in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, USA. A soil characterization database for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, USA, was used to provide input to the Horn and Fleige [Horn, R., Fleige, H., 2003. A method for assessing the impact of load on mechanical stability and on physical properties of soils. Soil Till. Res. 73, 89–99] approach to estimate the pre-consolidation stress and the maximum depth of compaction for 29 agricultural soils in Pennsylvania. The Horn and Fleige [Horn, R., Fleige, H., 2003. A method for assessing the impact of load on mechanical stability and on physical properties of soils. Soil Till. Res. 73, 89–99] approach was tentatively validated using previously measured pre-consolidation stress or penetration resistance values measured on five of the 29 soils. The estimated maximum depth of compaction indicated that an 89-kN (10-ton) axle load was excessive in almost all cases for soils at matric potentials of −33 and −6 kPa for both tillage and no-till management. A 53-kN (6-ton) axle load was acceptable for most cases when tillage was planned to a 0.20-m depth, but was excessive in most cases for no-till management at a matric potential of −6 kPa while mostly acceptable for no-till management at a matric potential of −33 kPa. Penetration resistance measurements are recommended to decide when a load is excessive.     

The consequences of wheel-induced soil compaction and subsoiling for silage maize on a sandy loam soil in Belgium

In Belgium, growing silage maize in a monoculture often results in increased soil compaction. The aim of our research was to quantify the effects of this soil compaction on the dry matter (DM) yields and the nitrogen use of silage maize (Zea mays L.). On a sandy loam soil of the experimental site of Ghent University (Belgium), silage maize was grown on plots with traditional soil tillage (T), on artificially compacted plots (C) and on subsoiled plots (S). The artificial compaction, induced by multiple wheel-to-wheel passages with a tractor, increased the soil penetration resistance up to more than 1.5 MPa in the zone of 0–35 cm of soil depth. Subsoiling broke an existing plough pan (at 35–45 cm of soil depth). During the growing season, the release of soil mineral nitrogen by mineralisation was substantially lower on the C plots than on the T and S plots. Silage maize plants on the compacted soil were smaller and flowering was delayed. The induced soil compaction caused a DM yield loss of 2.37 Mg ha⁻¹ (−13.2%) and decreased N uptake by 46.2 kg ha⁻¹ (−23.2%) compared to the T plots. Maize plants on compacted soil had a lower, suboptimal nitrogen content. Compared with the traditional soil tillage that avoided heavy compaction, subsoiling offered no significant benefits for the silage maize crop. It was concluded that avoiding heavy soil compaction in silage maize is a major strategy for maintaining crop yields and for enhancing N use efficiency.     

The effect of soil compaction on mole plough draught

Conventional and zero traffic systems were mole ploughed and effects on soil physical properties were compared. Draught of the plough operating at 550 mm depth was measured while it was winched across plots having a 5-year history of different traffic regimes. Results showed that the draught was reduced by about 18% on non-trafficked compared with conventionally-trafficked soil.

Cone resistance measurements, 1 month before and 3 months after mole ploughing, confirmed that the non-trafficked soil had significantly less strength to a depth of about 400 mm. Bulk density measured at 75 and 175 mm depth 1 month before mole ploughing indicated a similar trend, but clod and bulk densities at 125 mm and 350 mm depth 3 months later, failed to show any consistent differences between treatments.