Effect of azole fungicide mixtures,alternations and dose on azole sensitivity in the wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici

The evolution of fungicide resistance in the cereal pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici is a serious threat to the sustainability and profitability of wheat production in Europe. Application of azole fungicides has been shown to affect fitness of Z. tritici variants differentially, so it has been hypothesized that combinations of azoles could slow the evolution of resistance. This work assessed the effects of dose, mixtures and alternations of two azoles on selection for isolates with reduced sensitivity and on disease control. Naturally infected field trials were carried out at six sites across Ireland and the sensitivity of Z. tritici isolates monitored pre‐ and post‐treatment. Epoxiconazole and metconazole were applied as solo products, in alternation with each other, and as a pre‐formulated mixture. Full and half label doses were tested. Isolates were partially cross‐resistant to the two azoles, with a common azole resistance principal component accounting for 75% of the variation between isolates. Selection for isolates with reduced azole sensitivity was correlated with disease control. Decreased doses were related to decreases in sensitivity but the effect was barely significant (P = 0·1) and control was reduced. Single applications of an active ingredient (a.i.) caused smaller decreases in sensitivity than double applications. Shifts in sensitivity to the a.i. applied to a plot were greater than to the a.i. not applied, and the decrease in sensitivity was greater to the a.i. applied at the second timing. These results confirm the need to mix a.i.s with different modes of action.     

Dose and number of applications that maximize fungicide effective life exemplified by Zymoseptoria tritici on wheat – a model analysis

Two key decisions that need to be taken about a fungicide treatment programme are (i) the number of applications that should be used per crop growing season, and (ii) the dosage that should be used in each application. There are two opposing considerations, with control efficacy improved by a higher number of applications and higher dose, and resistance management improved by a lower number of applications and lower dose. Resistance management aims to prolong the effective life of the fungicide, defined as the time between its introduction onto the market for use on the target pathogen, and the moment when effective control is lost due to a build‐up of fungicide resistance. Thus, the question is whether there are optimal combinations of dose rate and number of applications that both provide effective control and lead to a longer effective life. In this paper, it is shown how a range of spray programmes can be compared and optimal programmes selected. This is explored with Zymoseptoria tritici on wheat and a quinone outside inhibitor (QoI) fungicide. For this pathogen–fungicide combination, a single treatment provided effective control under the simulated disease pressure, but only if the application timing was optimal and the dose was close to the maximum permitted. Programmes with three applications were generally not optimal as they exerted too much selection for resistance. Two‐application fungicide programmes balanced effective control with reasonable flexibility of dose and application timing, and low resistance selection, leading to long effective lives of the fungicide.     

The effects of various plant protection methods on the development of Zymoseptoria tritici and Cephalosporium gramineum,grain yield and protein profile

Septoria leaf blotch progresses rapidly, leading to the development of Zymoseptoria titici forms resistant to fungicides. Cephalosporium stripe is caused by Cephalosporium gramineum. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of selected pesticides in limiting the symptoms of both diseases on winter wheat leaves, and to determine their influence on grain yield and the content and composition of protein fractions in wheat kernels. Propiconazoles were most effective in inhibiting the development of Septoria leaf blotch (symptoms were reduced from 54.7% to 78.6%). Strobilurins were less effective due to the presence of isolates with the G143A mutation. Symptoms of Cephalosporium stripe were rarely observed, and protective treatments did not reduce their severity. The highest content of grain protein (14.81%) was found in plants most intensely protected with the fungicides containing fenpropimorph, pyraclostrobin and epoxiconazole. The principal component analysis revealed that the plant protection method influenced the grain protein profile. The accumulation of HMW glutenins and α/β gliadins was mutually interrelated and higher in high-input treatments; control grain was characterized by close relationships between ω-gliadins, LMW glutenins, albumins and globulins, whereas low-input treatments influenced mostly γ-gliadins.     

Comparative pathogenicity of sexual and asexual spores of Zymoseptoria tritici (septoria tritici blotch) on wheat leaves

Zymoseptoria tritici ascospores and pycnidiospores are considered the main forms of primary and secondary inoculum, respectively, in septoria tritici blotch epidemics. The pathogenicity of the two types of spores of the same genotypic origin were compared through a two‐stage inoculation procedure in controlled conditions. Adult wheat leaves were inoculated with ascospores collected from field sources, yielding 119 lesions; pycnidiospores collected from 12 lesions resulting from these ascospore infections were then used for inoculation. Lesion development was assessed for 5 weeks; latent period, lesion size, and pycnidium density were estimated for different isolates. The latent period was calculated as the maximum likely time elapsed between inoculation and either the appearance of the majority of the sporulating lesions (leaf scale) or the appearance of the first pycnidia (lesion scale). The latent period was significantly longer (c. 60 degree‐days, i.e. 3–4 days) after infection with ascospores than with pycnidiospores. No difference was established for lesion size and density of pycnidia. A comparison with other ascomycete fungi suggested that the difference in latent period might be related to the volume of spores and their ability to cause infection. Fungal growth before the appearance of lesions may be slower after inoculation with an ascospore than with a pycnidiospore. The mean latent period during the very beginning of epidemics, when first lesions are mainly caused by ascospores, may be longer than during spring, when secondary infections are caused by pycnidiospores. Disease models would be improved if these differences were considered.     

Effects of blast on components of wheat physiology and grain yield as influenced by fungicide treatment and host resistance

Two field experiments (Exp. 1 and Exp. 2) were carried out to assess the physiological performance and grain yield of wheat cultivars BR‐18 (moderately resistant) and Guamirim (susceptible) inoculated with Pyricularia oryzae in plots treated or untreated with Ópera (fungicide 13.3% epoxiconazole + 5% pyraclostrobin). Results from regression analyses indicated that spike and leaf blast severity at 10–14 days after inoculation (dai) were associated with greater yield losses (highest negative slope) than severity at 18–22 dai. Relative to untreated Guamirim, there were 0.3% and 16% increases in Exp. 1 and 2, respectively, for untreated BR‐18 (resistance alone). For fungicide treatment alone, the mean yield of Guamirim increased by 20% and 61% in Exp. 1 and 2, respectively, relative to the untreated fungicide control, whereas for the fungicide treated BR‐18, the mean yield increased by 26% and 83% in Exp. 1 and 2, respectively. Fungicide application and cultivar resistance resulted in higher measures of leaf health and photosynthetic performance in both spikes and leaves than in the untreated susceptible reference treatment. The results from this study may be useful in future efforts to develop crop loss models and management guidelines for wheat blast.     

小麦条锈病不同病级损失率测定及其应用

测定了小麦条锈病不同病级所造成的小麦产量损失率 ,探讨了损失率以及田间产量损失程度的简便测算方法。小麦条锈病病级与小麦穗粒数、千粒重、穗重关系密切 ,其回归方程式分别为:Y₁=62.29-3.11X±1.16(r=-0.9920);Y₂=44.79-2.74X±1.98(r=-0.9708);Y₃=2.68-0.235X±0.08(r=0.9937)。小麦中后期功能叶受害损失较大 ,最终集中表现在穗重降低上 ,损失率回归方程为:Y₃′=9.27X-5.76±3.07(r=0.9937)。上穗危害损失率回归方程为:YY₃ ′=3.00X+0.64±0.58(r=0.9958) ,经测验相关系数均为极显著。中后期叶片受害病级 1级时损失率为3.5% ,以后每增加1个级别穗重降低0.235g ,损失率增加9.27% ;上穗危害穗部病级增加 1级穗重降低0.1g ,损失率增加3%     

Interaction between phyllosphere yeasts, aphid honeydew and fungicide effectiveness in wheat under field conditions

Aphid honeydew can reduce fungicide effectiveness against necrotrophic pathogens of wheat under controlled conditions. In 1988 and 1989, field experiments were carried out at different locations in The Netherlands, to assess the interference of honeydew with fungicide effectiveness under field conditions, and to establish whether honeydew consumption by naturally occurring saprophytes could prevent this effect. Different combinations of chemicals were used to create differences in saprophytic population densities and aphid populations, which were expected to result in differences in the amount of honeydew and other nutrients on the leaves. In two of the experiments, Septoria nodorum was the only necrotrophic pathogen present; in the other two the only necrotroph was S. tritici . On several sampling dates, the effect of the fungicides was significantly enhanced by addition of insecticide, most often when the saprophytes were reduced by maneb/anilazine. This effect of insecticide is ascribed to prevention of interference of honeydew with fungicide activity, and not to a direct effect of insecticide, as insecticide alone had no effect on necrosis. On the basis of the fact that interference of honeydew with fungicide activity was most apparent when saprophytic population densities were reduced, it is concluded that the naturally occurring saprophytes can generally prevent the effect of honeydew. The same interactions are likely to occur between other nutrients and fungicides, and it is therefore argued that the naturally occurring saprophytes should be protected by elimination of harmful chemicals.     

种植密度对小麦群体质量叶绿素荧光参数和产量的影响

为进一步改善小麦群体质量,研究了不同密度下皖麦52和烟农19主要生理指标及产量间的差异。结果表明：烟农19的叶面积指数在基本苗120×104株·hm-2（M1）和210×104株·hm-2（M2）下高于皖麦52,而在300×104株·hm-2（M3）和390×104株·hm-2（M4）下低于皖麦52;皖麦52和烟农19各生育期的叶绿素含量及灌浆期的各叶绿素荧光参数（Fo、Fm、Fv/Fm、qP、ETR和ΦpsI ）皆随种植密度的增加而降低,且同一密度下两品种间的差异皆不显著;皖麦52和烟农19的产量随种植密度的增加呈现先增加后下降的趋势,在M1和M2下,烟农19的产量高于皖麦52,分别增加了13．4％和2．4％,在M3和M4下,皖麦52的产量高于烟农19,分别增加了10．7％和1．0％;皖麦52和烟农19的经济系数随密度的增加而降低,两品种间存在一定差异,但同一密度下不显著;相关分析表明,小麦实际光化学效率（ΦpsI ）与单茎干物重、叶绿素含量呈直线正相关关系,叶面积指数与单茎干物重呈直线负相关关系,与产量呈二次抛物线的关系。研究得出,烟农19的高产适宜密度为基本苗120万～210万株·hm-2,皖麦52为210万～300万株·hm-2。     

供氮水平对引黄灌区春小麦氮平衡及产量和加工品质的影响

以宁春4号为材料研究了不同供氮水平对土壤-作物体系氮平衡和春小麦产量和品质的影响,结果表明:氮肥利用率随施氮量的升高呈下降趋势,氮肥利用率在18.2%～27.2%之间,平均为23.2%;氮素表观损失率为31.2%～52.1%,随施氮量增加而增加.在0～240Nkg/hm2范围内,小麦籽粒产量和赖氨酸含量随施氮量增加而增...     

Fertilisation and weed control effects on yield and weeds in durum wheat grown under rain-fed conditions in a Mediterranean climate

Summary A field study was undertaken to examine the effect of fertiliser type and weed control system on grain yield, yield components and weed population in durum wheat ( Triticum turgidum. var. durum) grown in a 4-year rotation [bare fallow–barley ( Hordeum vulgare )–vetch ( Vicia sativa )–wheat]. Fertilisation treatments were: no fertilisation, organic fertilisation with 2500 kg ha⁻¹ of compost (sheep manure and cereal straw) and chemical fertilisation with 100–60–60 kg ha⁻¹ of NPK. Weed-control treatments were: no control, herbicide, harrowing with long-flex spring tines and strip sowing with inter-row hoeing. Chemical fertilisation increased grain yield with respect to the other treatments, amongst which no significant differences were noted. Weed-control systems afforded no improvement in yield compared with controls; indeed, yields obtained using inter-row hoeing were lower. The weed population consisted of a large variety of species, of which the most important were Convolvulus arvensis and Polygonum aviculare . Application of weed-control systems reduced weed density. Herbicide was the most effective, reducing weed biomass by 80%, whilst harrowing and hoeing reduced weed biomass by 40% and 52% respectively. Inter-row hoeing does not appear to be a viable alternative to herbicides, when used as the sole weed control method in a non-diverse cropping system in Mediterranean climates. The lack of response to compost suggests a need for further long-term research.     

Powdery mildew on winter wheat in Bulgaria, 1980: Relations between disease incidence,disease severity,and yield

Mildew epidemics in 1980 on winter wheat cv. Sadovo 1 near Sofia, Bulgaria, were studied in detail. Half of the experimental plots were artificially inoculated, whereas the others were naturally infected. Fungicide treatments on all plots consisted of from nil to three applications of triadimefon. On four days, mildew severity, plant height and the yield components ear length, number of kernels, and grain weight per ear were determined. Mildew incidence showed to be a simple and reliable predictor of yield loss. It is suggested that mildew incidence can be used for decision making in the supervised control of wheat mildew in Bulgaria.Samenvatting Sofia, Bulgarije, in detail bestudeerd. Van 32 veldjes van 1 m² groot, in vier blokken van acht veldjes verdeeld over een groot tarweperceel, werd de helft kunstmatig geïnfecteerd met meeldauw, terwijl de andere helft aan natuurlijke infectie werd blootgesteld. De bespuitingen variëerden van een tot drie bespuitingen met triadimenfon, alsmede een onbespoten controle. Op drie dagen werden aantastingsgraad en incidentie van meeldauw bepaald aan de drie bovenste bladlagen. Een aantal relaties werd berekend tussen incidentie, aantastingsgraad en opbrengstvariabelen (planthoogte, aarlengte, aantal korrels per aar, korrelgewicht per aar). In ontwikkelingsstadium F 10.1 bleek meeldauw-incidentie een eenvoudige en betrouwbare maat te zijn voor toekomstige opbrengstderving. Meeldauw-incidentie kan als maat gebruikt worden bij de geleide bestrijding van meeldauw in Bulgarije, maar er zullen nog veel proeven nodig zijn om dit doel te bereiken.     

生物炭对不同水氮条件下小麦产量的影响

研究生物炭与氮肥互作在不同水分条件下对小麦关键生育期旗叶光合参数、产量与主要农艺性状的影响,探讨生物炭改良不同水肥条件土壤并提高其作物产量的效果与内在机理,可为农田有机物资源合理利用提供理论支撑。本研究采用盆栽试验,生物炭用量设置五个水平(0,1%,2%,4%和6%),氮肥设置N0,N1和N2(0,0.2 g·kg~(-1)和0.4 g·kg~(-1))三个水平,小麦拔节期控制土壤田间持水量的80%和50%模拟正常水分和干旱胁迫两种水分环境。于小麦拔节期和抽穗期测定旗叶光合参数和SPAD值,成熟后对小麦籽粒产量及主要农艺性状进行统计。结果显示:(1)与不施生物炭处理相比,1%和2%生物炭用量平均增产6.62%和11.01%,4%和6%生物炭用量平均减产6.88%和10.1%,同时会导致千粒重、穗粒数和株高的降低;(2)正常水分条件下,1%和2%生物炭用量与N1和N2之间存在协同增产作用,而4%和6%生物炭用量表现出负面效应;(3)干旱胁迫条件下,仅1%和2%生物炭用量与N1存在协同增产作用,生物炭处理削弱N2增产潜力;(4)N0水平下,生物炭处理均表现出促进小麦旗叶光合速率,增加产量的作用;(5)N1条件下,生物炭促进小麦旗叶光合速率且在干旱胁迫条件下效果更明显。总体上生物炭对小麦旗叶光合参数和产量的影响受生物炭用量、氮素水平和水分条件共同制约且存在复杂的交互作用,干旱会限制生物炭与氮肥的协同增产作用;在低肥力土壤上应用生物炭的增产效果较好,而在质地较细且肥力中等的土壤应用时推荐48 t·hm~(-2)(2%)生物炭用量。     

不同钾肥品种和用量对小麦产量品质和养分吸收利用的影响

在河南滑县试验点,比较几种钾肥品种和罗布泊K2SO4不同用量在小麦上的应用效果,结果表明:增施钾肥可以提高小麦产量,促进小麦氮素吸收、提高小麦蛋白质和氨基酸含量,在同等用量条件下,罗布泊K2SO4的施用效果好于或接近于其他钾肥.当施钾量为135 kg/hm2时,其籽粒产量、生物产量、籽粒养分含量、籽粒氨基酸含量和生产利润最高,施钾量为180 kg/hm2时,其籽粒蛋白质含量最高.回归方程计算表明,钾肥的最佳用量为121.4 kg/hm2,产值为10 227.4元/hm2,最大利润为8 392.0元/hm2.     

Consumption of aphid honeydew,a wheat yield reduction factor,by phyllosphere yeasts under field conditions

Aphid honeydew on wheat leaves can affect host physiology directly and can stimulate infection by necrotrophic pathogens. The role of naturally occurring saprophytes on wheat flag leaves in removing aphid honeydew was examined in five field experiments at different locations in the Netherlands in 1987 and 1988. Aphid populations, saprophyte populations and aphid honeydew were measured weekly. Diseases were monitored at 1–4 week intervals.In the control treatment, sprayed with water, the naturally occurring saprophytes consumed the honeydew almost completely, except in one experiment in which the aphid population increased very rapidly. In the treatments in which the saprophytes were reduced by the broad-spectrum fungicide maneb in 1987 and with maneb alternated with anilazin in 1988, honeydew accumulated. The observed honeydew consumption by the naturally occurring saprophytic population is ascribed mainly to pink and white yeasts (Sporobolomyces spp. andCryptococcus spp., respectively).Additional treatments showed, that in the presence of the naturally occurring saprophytes the yield loss per aphid-infestation-day was lower than when the saprophytes were inhibited by fungicides, showing that yeasts can reduce the detrimental effect of aphid honeydew in wheat.     

Effects of sharp eyespot (Rhizoctonia cerealis) on yield and grain quality of winter wheat

Sharp eyespot caused by Rhizoctonia cerealis was assessed in four winter wheat crops surveyed at four locations in north-central Poland in 2006?C2009. At the four locations symptoms developed on 41.9?C67.7?% of shoots of all plants (average of 4?years) and on 49?C73.5?% of shoots of diseased plants (average of 4?years). Slight (category 1) disease was most frequent, occurring on 24.4?C41.3?% of shoots (range 14.8?C51.3?%); moderate (category 2) disease was less frequent, occurring on 16.9?C25.5?% of shoots (range 8.9?C32.4?%); severe (category 3) disease was least frequent, occurring on 3.2?C7.1?% (range 0?C22.0?%) of shoots. Sharp eyespot affected wheat growth and yield, and grain quality. Disease, especially in the severe category, was associated with significant decreases in plant and ear dry weights, number of grains per ear, grain dry weight per ear and thousand-grain weight, and with increases in grain protein and wet gluten contents, Hagberg falling number and sedimentation value. There was an association between occurrence of sharp eyespot in stems and colonization of grain by fungi. Alternaria alternata and E. nigrum were the most common species.     

Effect of fungicide treatment on yield of winter wheat and spring barley cultivars

Analyses of the results of 21 winter wheat and 32 spring barley trials showed that cultivars differed significantly in their yield response to a standard fungicide treatment. Responses were also strongly influenced by differences between sites and between years. Regression analyses showed that responses were significantly related to reductions in foliar disease, particularly that of mildew, although the proportion of variance accounted for was small. Measurements made on seven winter wheat trials indicated that the percentage of leaf area remaining green after anthesis was increased by the fungicide treatment to a greater extent than could be attributed to reduction in foliar disease alone. In one of these trials, yield response was more closely correlated with the increase in leaf area remaining green than with reduction in foliar disease.     

Effects of moisture and septoria tritici blotch stresses on wheat yields under semi-arid conditions: A Simulation study

The effects of Septoria tritici blotch on spring wheat were incorporated into a crop growth simulator and the model was then used to evaluate the interrelationships between moisture and disease stresses on wheat yields under semi-arid conditions. Simulation experiments revealed that moisture availability plays a role in determining the relationship between disease and yield. In a season when precipitation was distributed evenly, a non-diseased crop yielded more than diseased crops. Yield reductions in diseased crops were related to the severity of epidemics; the relationship between disease and yield was inverse and linear. In a season when water was scarce during the stage of kernel-filling, crops with mild or moderate disease epidemics (apparent infection rate of a logistic model,r, of 0.025 or 0.05 per unit) yielded more than the non-diseased crop. The yield of the crop with a severe epidemic (r of 0.1 per unit) was reduced substantially and the relationship between disease and yield was parabolic. The parabolic relationship was linearized when additional precipitation was simulated in the model.     

播期和密度对普冰151小麦籽粒产量与品质的影响

为确定关中地区小麦适宜播期和密度,以普冰151为试验材料,于2014年10月—2015年6月设置10月3日、10月8日、10月13日3个播期和基本苗135、195、255、315万·hm~(-2)4个密度,研究了播期和密度对普冰151产量及品质的影响。结果表明,随着播期的推迟,普冰151的籽粒产量降低,通过增加密度可以提高小麦成穗数,达到增加产量的目的。从播期和密度互作对产量的影响来看,普冰151的适宜播期为10月3日至10月8日,播量随着播期的推迟而增加,基本苗由10月3日的195万·hm~(-2)增加到10月8日的255万·hm~(-2)。随着播期的推迟,蛋白质含量和湿面筋含量呈下降趋势,面团稳定时间呈上升趋势;当密度为255万·hm~(-2)时,蛋白质含量、湿面筋含量和面团稳定时间最大,分别为14.25%、30.72%和10.22 min。因此,可根据实际需要,确定最适宜的播期和密度,使产量和品质协调统一。     

Factors affecting development of Septoria tritici in winter wheat and its effect on yield

Severe infection with Septoria tritici occurred in four of five experiments designed to create a series of different disease epidemics. These experiments successfully identified periods suitable for infection. They also indicated the effect of sprays, timed before and after these periods, on disease development and yield.
Analysis of disease progress and weather records suggested that critical conditions for initial development of S. tritici occurred during early May at four sites. Heavy rain giving at least 10 mm on 1 day or a total of 10 mm or more on 2 or 3 successive days occurred at all four sites prior to the appearance of symptoms on a particular leaf layer, though less heavy rain may suffice to splash inoculum onto upper leaves in shorter, immature canopies where stem elongation is incomplete. At the fifth site, infection occurred later in May and disease failed to develop to a significant degree. At all sites, the length of the incubation period on any of the top three leaves was found to be between 396 and 496 degree days.
Control of winter epidemics of S. tritici had little effect on yield, whereas spray sequences commencing later than growth stage (GS) 31 but immediately prior to the critical periods provided the best disease control and yield benefit. Regression models incorporating, as independent variables, area under the S. tritici disease progress curve for any of the top three leaves from their emergence (GS 32-37) satisfactorily explained yield loss at the four sites where disease was severe. Consideration of leaf 2 or leaf 3 alone accounted for more than 82% of the variance at each site and a yield loss from infection of leaf 2 related to thermal time is suggested as 0.00265% per C per day from the appearance of symptoms.     

Influence of site factors on yield response of winter wheat to fungicide programmes in England and Wales, 1979–1987

Results of 460 field experiments between 1979 and 1987 incorporating one, two and three fungicide sprays, with a range of active ingredients, were analysed according to site factors including previous crop, sowing date and geographical area. The average untreated yield was 7–48 t/ha, although this fluctuated widely from 6 15 t/ha in 1985 to 9 411 ha in 1984. A single spray at flag-leaf emergence gave an average yield increment of 0 59 t/ha over plots receiving no fungicide. The addition of a second spray at the first-node growth stage gave an extra benefit of 0.22 t/ha, while an additional third spray at ear emergence gave a further 0.28t/ha. The effects on yield of different spray timings were modified by other factors, of which sowing date and previous crop were most important to the first-node spray, and cultivar and geographical area to the ear emergence spray. The data suggest that all crops would benefit economically from a broad-spectrum fungicide applied at flag-leaf emergence. Additionally, crops sown in September, those following winter wheat and those in regions bordering the North Sea respond well at the first-node stage to a fungicide active against eyespot.