Protected Area Designation,Natural Amenities,and Rural Development of Forested Counties in the Continental United States

Policy makers who wish to spur economic development in rural forests face challenges that include population decline and poverty. Protected land and natural amenities enhance the quality of life and prospects for economic development, but there is limited research on how different types of protected land or natural amenities affect the rural forest economy. We use county level variables for protected areas differentiated by access and extractive use, and natural amenities differentiated by climate, water area, and topography to explain spatial variation in labor and built space markets. Results show that temperate summers and water area increase wages and housing prices and explain more than 30 percent of the spatial differences in wages, housing price, employment density, built space percent, human capital, and local road density. Protected area decreases wages, but, if open access, increase housing prices and human capital and explain more than 20 percent of the spatial differences in human capital, built space percent, and local road density.     

Natural Amenities and Rural Development: Understanding Spatial and Distributional Attributes

ABSTRACT Contemporary resource management practice and rural development planning increasingly emphasize the integration of resource extractive industries with non‐market‐based recreational and amenity values. There is a growing empirical literature which suggests that natural amenities impact regional economies through aggregate measures of economic performance such as population, income, and/or employment growth, and housing development. We maintain that assessing the developmental aspects of amenity‐led regional change requires a more thorough focus on alternative measures of economic performance such as income distribution and spatial organization. In the applied research presented here we investigate relationships between amenities and regional economic development indicators. Results suggest mixed and generally insignificant amenity‐based associations which highlight the need for appropriate regional economic modeling techniques that account for often dramatic spatial autocorrelation of natural amenity attributes. We conclude that with respect to amenity driven economic growth and development “place in space” matters.     

Household valuation of energy development in amenity‐rich regions

The juxtaposition of oil and gas wells against the Rocky Mountains on Colorado's Front Range provides a picture of the complicated interaction between Colorado's natural resources above and below ground. As hydraulic fracturing has increased oil and gas development—bringing jobs and money to an already highly sought after amenity‐rich area—it has also increased concerns about the impact on natural amenities, such as water quality and mountain views. Using data on housing sales between 2006 and 2014, we estimate how shale development is capitalized into housing prices in a booming market when households are in close proximity to other natural amenities. We find that shale development negatively impacts house prices, more so for houses with private water and houses that are closer to the mountains, but that competition for land along the Front Range has driven up house prices overall in the region. Our results also suggest the policy responses to shale development may differ for growing, amenity‐rich regions.     

Spatial Patterns in the Economic Development of the Mountain West

ABSTRACT Many counties in the mountainous areas of the western U.S. are experiencing rapid growth in population and income, even though extractive industries that served historically as their primary economic base are in decline. The purpose of this paper is to establish statistically the spatial determinants of population, employment, and income densities in 86 rural mountain counties and any changes in those determinants between 1985 and 1994. The results of this analysis indicate that densities are oriented to regional metropolitan centers and critical amenities such as ski areas, national parks, and universities or colleges. Negatively sloped density gradients with respect to distance from regional metropolitan centers suggest that the densities of settlement patterns beyond metropolitan boundaries are analogous to those within metropolitan areas relative to urban centers. In short, a tension apparently exists in locational choice; residents of the Mountain West desire to live near the beauties and amenities of the mountain landscape but do not want to entirely sever their urban ties. Because amenities are the primary attraction of mountain counties rather than employment in locationally dependent industries, at least some migrants must have relatively footloose forms of income.     

Are Homes Near Water Bodies and Wetlands Worth More or Less? An Analysis of Housing Prices in One Connecticut Town

Proximity to wetlands and water bodies can be considered an amenity (for open space and recreation value), as well as a possible nuisance (with the potential for flooding or development restrictions), although the overall effect may be different depending on location. Studies of the impacts of wetlands and water on housing prices can also be prone to spatial autocorrelation problems arising from omitted unobservables. McMillen and Redfearn explain that locally weighted regressions (LWRs) can address spatial autocorrelation. In addition to ordinary least squares (OLS), we use LWR to control for spatial effects and analyze how proximity to water bodies and wetland areas impact real sales prices of homes in one Connecticut town in 2000–2009. With OLS regressions, proximity to wetland areas and water bodies are insignificant determinants of the real sale price of homes. When we control for spatial effects with a nonparametric (i.e., LWR) approach, the significance of the water variable is different than from OLS—while greater distance from wetlands leads to an insignificant relationship with housing price, the water distance effect becomes negative and significant. These results imply that incorporating potential spatial heterogeneity in the data is crucial for accurately estimating the direction, magnitudes, and statistical significance of the relationships between environmental variables and housing prices.     

Housing Demand,Coping Strategy,and Selection Bias

ABSTRACT In conventional modeling of housing demand, consumers choose living arrangement, tenure, and housing on the basis of price, income, wealth, and tastes. However, it is both costly and onerous to alter one's housing conditions. It is argued therefore that consumers employ housing strategies to cope with labor market risks and expectations about their future: strategies that may differ from one demographic group to the next. In conventional modeling of housing demand, it is also well‐known that selection bias can arise: that is, omitted variables that help account for one aspect of housing (say, tenure choice) also subsequently affect the nature of the demand function for other aspects of housing demand (say, the amount spent on housing by a renter household). One such variable is the consumer's wealth, a variable that is typically not available in household survey data. This paper argues that the most important variables that may give rise to selection bias are variables that also reflect the coping strategies employed by consumers. The paper estimates a model of housing choice using Canada‐wide pooled samples from the 1980s and 1990s. In this paper, the prices of housing services and income prospects vary region by region. The paper shows how individuals and families in different housing markets across Canada respond, and how this evidences the use of coping strategies (from doubling up to substandard housing). The paper presents evidence to support the argument that selection bias is important in understanding how consumers cope.     

Nuclear Power Plants and Residential Housing Prices

Nuclear power plants can theoretically influence property values through a number of different channels. The public perception of risk associated with the potential hazard from the operation of a nuclear reactor and the storage of nuclear waste may lead to lower bids on properties in close proximity to the plant. In contrast, workers at the plant may be less concerned with any potential hazards, and may actually value being in proximity to the workplace. Hence, one cannot a priori sign the distance gradient of homes in the vicinity of a nuclear power plant. In this study, a hedonic model coupled with geographic information system (GIS) techniques is used to estimate housing price surfaces around two nuclear power plants in California. The use of GIS software allows more potential influences to housing prices to be accurately incorporated than previously included in hedonic studies. Based on the evidence from the plants chosen, these findings do not support the contention that negative imagery surrounding nuclear power plants or stored nuclear waste has a significant detrimental influence on residential home prices in the immediate vicinity of these facilities.     

Housing Project Hedonic Price Model Based on Principal Components Analysis

Real estate hedonic price model is applied to determine the average sale unit price of newly built housing projeer. In order to solve the problems of the lack of sample and the high correlation of some of the housing characteristic factors with each other in this application, a housing project hedonic pricing model based on principal components analysis of housing characteristic factors has been established. Through a case, the author has analyzed the economical significance of the implicit prices. With the model, the average sale unit price of a newly built housing project can be determined by rule and line.     

Computing state average marginal income tax rates: An application to Missouri

Using filing‐level data, we compute the average marginal income tax rate for the State of Missouri. We have data from 2000 through 2015. We start with a simple experiment: consider the effect that a $10 change in federal adjusted gross income would have on each filer’s tax payment. We find that with deductions, exemptions, and credits, the average marginal income tax rate has been remarkably steady over the years, ranging from 3.50% to 3.66%. This rate is much lower than the top marginal income tax rate, which has been 6% for taxable income greater than $9,000 for the entire sample period. In addition, we compute the average marginal income tax rate for different types of income in order to compare directly with the NBER’s reported state rate.     

基于AHP法的休闲农业景观评价指标体系研究

为建立休闲农业景观评价体系,并了解各指标在农业景观构建中的作用,本文基于层次分析法(AHP)、构建农业景观评价指标体系。运用专家咨询法和1-9标度法构造判断矩阵,计算了各指标在景观要素中的权重值。结果表明：项目层权重值排序为自然景观>生产景观>人文景观;因素层中农田的整体感官、地域文化、有机生态环保性权重值比较大;指标层中带动旅游创收权重值最大,道路通达性、自然生态体验、农事操作参与、可持续性、生态系统多样性也占有一定的地位。本文研究结果将为进一步建立和完善农业景观评价体系提供参考依据。     

黄河三角洲地区不同林分云斑白条天牛的空间分布特点

云斑白条天牛对黄河三角洲地区的重要园林绿化树种白蜡树造成严重危害,研究不同林分类型的空间分布,对云斑白条天牛抽样调查和防治具有参考价值。通过调查片林、庭院绿化林、公路行道林、城区行道林和庭院行道林5种不同林分类型白蜡树林地云斑白条天牛的排粪孔、羽化孔和蛀孔的数量,统计分析其空间分布特点。计算聚集度指标、Iwao回归方程和Taylor幂指数方程结果表明,云斑白条天牛危害片林、庭院绿化林、公路行道林、城区行道林和庭院行道林5种林地时的排粪孔、羽化孔和蛀孔均表现为聚集分布,但不同林分类型的聚集度指标参数、Iwao回归方程的α和β值、Taylor幂指数方程lga和b存在一定差异。     

基于AHP城市保障房用地空间分布研究

为了使保障性住房用地的空间布局更加科学合理,中低收入群体的住房需求能够得到充分保障。本研究通过对河北省11个地级市独立性保障房用地现状进行调查,选取距市中心距离和基准地价水平两个因素,并分别以相对距离指数和相对级别指数建立各市可比基础,运用AHP模型,设定3级评价尺度,对各市保障性住房的区位优劣度进行定量评价。结果表明河北省各市保障房建设情况总体较为均衡,张家口、唐山、石家庄在保障房选址上较其他城市更为合理,并深入分析现阶段保障房用地分布相对理想的原因,建议从立法规范、居住模式、转变观念、丰富房源等角度进行优化。

     

基于AHP城市保障房用地空间分布研究——以河北省为例

为了使保障性住房用地的空间布局更加科学合理,中低收入群体的住房需求能够得到充分保障。通过对河北省11 个地级市独立性保障房用地现状进行调查,选取距市中心距离和基准地价水平两个因素,并分别以相对距离指数和相对级别指数建立各市可比基础,运用AHP模型,设定3 级评价尺度,对各市保障性住房的区位优劣度进行定量评价。结果表明河北省各市保障房建设情况总体较为均衡,张家口、唐山、石家庄在保障房选址上较其他城市更为合理,并深入分析现阶段保障房用地分布相对理想的原因,建议从立法规范、居住模式、转变观念、丰富房源等角度进行优化。     

An Integrated Framework of Population Change: Influential Factors,Spatial Dynamics,and Temporal Variation

Population change has been studied in the fields of human ecology, population geography, environmental sociology, transportation planning, and regional economics, which make unique contributions to theorizing and modeling population change. Drawing upon this diverse literature, we develop an integrated framework for understanding population change in this review paper. The proposed framework is composed of five putative influences (demographic characteristics, socio‐economic conditions, transportation accessibility, natural amenities, and land development) analyzed across three dimensions—these influential factors of population change conditioned by spatial dynamics and temporal variation. We also proposed a practical procedure for tackling the complexity between population change and influential factors. This integrated framework has potential to complement existing population research approaches employed within individual disciplines.     

Spatial Layout of Mountainous Elderly Residential Districts

Taking the planning of elderly building for example, this paper explored the spatial layout, entrance/exit design, road space design and landscape design of the elderly residential districts against the background of population aging and increasing demands of ecological residence. In addition, the paper tried to fully use outstanding natural environment in mountainous areas to plan the elderly community, and integrate the characteristics of mountainous community planning and elderly buildings.     

A Territorial Articulation Index for Rural Areas Applied to Four Spanish Comarcas

This paper proposes a model for calculating a composite index to evaluate the internal territorial cohesion or articulation of rural areas, specifically rural Spanish comarcas (groups of municipalities with common geographic and historical characteristics). Evaluation is based on the optimum spatial distributions of their urban nuclei and access to roads by their inhabitants. First, we built the index for spatial distributions of urban nuclei in each comarca. Next, we constructed road accessibility indexes for all urban nuclei to each other and to the main urban nucleus (defined by the largest concentration of services). Based on these indexes, we developed an Internal Territorial Articulation Index (ITAI) that reflects the spatial distribution of the territory's urban nuclei in terms of their aggregation, internal accessibility within the comarca, and relationship with the main urban nucleus. The ITAI was applied to four Spanish comarcas in the province of Almería: Almería Alpujarra, Almanzora, Los Vélez, and Almería Poniente. The results are highly varied and allow areas with low degrees of territorial articulation or coherence to be identified either by the distribution of their urban nuclei or by their poor accessibility to roads. Results were unfavourable in mountainous regions with steep slopes and in areas furthest from the province's large urban nuclei. The conclusions may help develop settlement and road transport infrastructure strategies in these rural comarcas.     

Changing Noise Levels and Housing Prices Near the Atlanta Airport

Using hedonic models, we analyze the effects of proximity and noise on housing prices in neighborhoods near Hartsfield‐Jackson Atlanta International Airport during 1995–2002. Proximity to the airport is related positively to housing prices. We address complications caused by changes over time in the levels and geographic distribution of noise and by the fact that noise contours are measured infrequently. A general decline in noise boosted housing prices during 1995–2002. After accounting for proximity, house characteristics, and demographic variables, houses in noisier areas sold for less than houses subjected to less noise. Also, the noise discount is larger during 2000–2002 than 1995–1999.     

The Spatial Impact of Language Policies on the Marginal Bids for English Education in Hong Kong

In 1997 the government of Hong Kong reformed its policy on the language medium for teaching at the secondary‐school level and removed schools' right to choose their own medium. Among the 404 public and “aided” secondary schools in Hong Kong, the government allowed only 100 to use English as the medium for teaching and required the remaining 304 to use the native language, Chinese. The authors assess the spatial impact of the policy reform and estimate the bid function for English‐language schools. The results show that the 1997 policy reform shifted parental preferences from public to private education and increased the marginal bid for proximity to private English schools by 2 percent. Following the reform, homeowners were willing to pay, on average, HK $8,400 for each additional 100 metres closer to a private English school.     

Temporal Elements in the Spatial Extension of Production Networks

ABSTRACT The spatial extension of production networks presents a significant challenge to managers accustomed to reducing lead times by geographically contracting supply chains. This paper extends the theory on time in transportation by defining the elements of transport time, order time, timing, punctuality, and frequency and elaborating on their characteristics. Structured along these elements, it analyses the consequences of extending production networks from within a mature economic region, mainly the EU‐15, U.S., and Japan, first to adjacent and then to nearby and finally distant low‐cost regions. Distance obviously affects the transport quality in all time dimensions. Except for air parcel services that globally match what road transport offers within an economic region, the longer the distance, the lower the time‐related performance. Distant, low‐cost regions, meaning China and India, also imply a polarisation between air and sea transport at opposite ends of the time, cost, and capacity scales. This supply gap restricts the types of products traded. The conceptual framework is illustrated in the setting of a global vehicle manufacturer spatially extending its sourcing. It demands that sequenced sub‐assemblies and small, cheap, and generic components are delivered from the vicinity of each assembly plant. Batched components can be sourced from adjacent regions, but deliveries from longer distances imply storage at pick‐up points to fulfil their time requirements. Hence, the suppliers must offer the manufacturing firm deliveries as if they produce relatively close to the assembly plants.     

Relative Economic Values of Open Space Provided by National Forest and Military Lands to Surrounding Communities

Open space lands are provided by a variety of entities from private individuals to the federal government and these entities make management decisions based on a very broad range of priorities. The net benefits of additional open space depend on the number, quality, and composition of existing open space in the vicinity. In areas where open space is abundant and there is a significant proportion that is federally owned, the net benefits are not well understood. In this study, the marginal willingness to pay for proximity to public open space is estimated using the hedonic property method and home sales transactions in 2007 for El Paso County Colorado, a location that boasts of having over 150,000 acres of open space. Results from a generalized spatial two‐stage least squares regression indicate that homes in close proximity to open space provided locally by city, county, and state governments sell for a premium, but larger premiums are associated with proximity to the Pike National Forest and Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station likely at least partially due to the natural amenities of the Rocky Mountains. In contrast, proximity to Fort Carson Army Installation is found to negatively affect house sales prices likely due to undesirable activities that occur on and around the installation. As for the other area of federal lands, proximity to the U.S. Air Force Academy and to Peterson Air Force Base was found to negatively affect house prices; however, these effects were not statistically significant.